Chloe Zhang
The world is increasingly turning to recycling as a solution to the environmental problems caused by plastic waste. However, current recycling systems are insufficient to address the challenge, with less than 10% of discarded plastics being recycled in the US. While biorecycling, which uses microbes to break down plastics, is an emerging technology, it is the least mature of the three main recycling methods and is currently limited in its applicability. Nevertheless, various governments and organizations are exploring biorecycling, and research in this area could help reduce plastic waste and its environmental and economic impacts.
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What You'll Learn
Biorecycling uses microbes to break down plastics
Biological recycling, or biorecycling, is an emerging technology that uses microbes such as bacteria or fungi to break down plastics into their basic components for reuse. This process is also known as biodepolymerization, where microbes' specialized proteins, or enzymes, break down plastics into monomers, which are the basic chemical components. The monomers can then be recombined into plastics of the same type and quality, or into different materials or chemicals with more desirable qualities, such as biodegradability or high value, in a process called upcycling.
The discovery of a new species of bacteria capable of almost completely degrading polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a plastic commonly used in products such as water bottles and polyester clothing, sparked interest in biorecycling in 2016. Since then, researchers have been seeking plastic-munching microbes in various environments, including hot springs in Yellowstone National Park, remote island beaches in the Pacific Ocean, and a plastic recycling factory in Japan.
While some microbes naturally produce enzymes that can break down certain plastics, the natural process can take weeks or more. To make biorecycling viable on an industrial scale, scientists can engineer these enzymes to break down plastics faster, reducing the time needed for complete degradation to hours. This process of enzyme engineering improves degradation efficiency and can be used to target specific plastics in a mixture, producing pure monomers that can then form new plastics.
Biorecycling has the potential to turn plastic waste into more useful products and promote a circular economy, where plastic waste is continuously reincorporated into new products. However, it is currently limited to certain types of plastic and can be costly. The enzymes identified so far are limited to degrading only a few types of plastic, and there are knowledge gaps regarding the unintended consequences of biorecycling, such as the potential risks of releasing engineered enzymes into the environment.
Despite these challenges, biorecycling is being explored as a potential solution to the growing problem of plastic waste, which often ends up in landfills and oceans, causing adverse environmental and health effects. With mechanical recycling resulting in lower quality plastic that is eventually discarded, and chemical recycling requiring heat and chemical reactions, biorecycling offers a potentially greener approach that requires less energy and can target specific plastics in a mixture.
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The US recycled 9% of its plastic waste in 2018
Plastic is a widely used material, with applications in products such as water bottles, polyester clothing, trash bags, and containers. The durability of plastics, stemming from the strong bonds between small molecular units, is a desirable trait for many industries. However, this very durability poses a significant challenge to recycling efforts.
The US generated about 36 million tons of municipal plastic waste in 2018, with only about 9% recycled. This percentage has decreased in recent years, with a 2022 report estimating the US plastic recycling rate to be between 5% and 6%. The low recycling rate is attributed to a combination of factors, including the material's inherent complexity, contamination of loads, and limited infrastructure.
The recycling symbol, with its three arrows, has been criticised as misleading, as most municipalities recycle only certain types of plastics. This confusion is compounded by the fact that many products use multiple types of plastic, and once discarded, plastics of different types are often mixed together, making them harder to recycle.
To address these challenges, researchers are exploring innovative technologies such as biorecycling, which uses microbes like bacteria or fungi to break down plastics into their basic components for reuse. Another emerging technology is chemical recycling, which employs heat, chemical reactions, or both, to recycle plastic waste.
Biorecycling, although promising, is currently the least mature of the three main recycling technologies. It faces challenges such as high implementation costs, limited applicability to only a few types of plastics, and potential environmental risks associated with the use of engineered enzymes. Despite these obstacles, biorecycling has gained significant attention, with governments and organisations actively supporting research and development in this field.
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Recycled plastic is less useful than new plastic
The recycling of plastics is a complex and challenging process. While it is possible to recycle some plastics, the reality is that not all plastics can be effectively recycled and reused. Recycled plastic is less useful than new plastic for several reasons, and the challenges associated with plastic recycling have led to a situation where the majority of plastic waste ends up in landfills or incinerators rather than being recycled.
Firstly, the durability of plastics, which is a desirable trait in many applications, also makes them difficult to recycle. Plastics are polymers, formed by linking small molecular units into long chains of atoms, and these bonds are challenging to break. The complexity increases when multiple types of plastics and other materials are combined in a single product, as seen in products like squeeze tubes with up to nine layers of different materials. Sorting and separating these various materials for recycling can be expensive and time-consuming.
Additionally, the recycling process itself can degrade the quality of plastic. Each time plastic is recycled, its quality diminishes, limiting its potential for reuse. This degradation occurs because the recycling process typically involves heating and reshaping the plastic, which affects its physical and chemical properties. As a result, recycled plastic may have a narrower range of applications and be less versatile than new plastic.
The economic factors also contribute to the challenge. Recycling plastic is generally more expensive than producing new plastic from virgin materials. The high costs of collecting, sorting, and processing plastic waste, along with the limited markets for recycled plastic products, make it less economically viable than producing new plastic. This economic reality discourages investment in recycling infrastructure and technologies, perpetuating the problem.
Furthermore, the environmental impact of plastic recycling cannot be overlooked. The process of collecting, transporting, and recycling plastic waste requires energy and resources, potentially offsetting some of the environmental benefits of recycling. Additionally, there are knowledge gaps and unintended consequences associated with emerging recycling technologies, such as biorecycling, that require further research to fully understand their ecological implications.
While recycled plastic may be less useful than new plastic in certain contexts, it is important to recognize the ongoing innovations and advancements in the field of plastic recycling. Efforts are being made to improve recycling technologies, such as biorecycling using engineered enzymes, to break down specific types of plastics more effectively. These developments offer hope for increasing the usefulness of recycled plastic and reducing our reliance on new plastic production.
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Biodegradable plastics can be composted
Biodegradable plastics are an alternative to conventional plastics, which are primarily made from fossil fuels. Fossil fuel-based plastics are durable and challenging to recycle. As a result, they contribute significantly to plastic pollution, with the majority of plastic waste ending up in landfills or being incinerated.
Bioplastics, on the other hand, are derived from plant materials such as corn, sugar beets, or potato starch. They are designed to be biodegradable, meaning they can break down naturally over time. This is achieved through the use of enzymes, which break down the plastic into its basic components, such as lactic acid, which can then be used to feed soil microbes in compost.
One challenge with bioplastics is that the term "bioplastics" is not standardized and can refer to a range of materials, including bio-based, biodegradable, or compostable plastics. Additionally, the current recycling infrastructure is not always equipped to handle bioplastics, and they may cause contamination in the recycling stream. Furthermore, bioplastics may contain toxic chemicals, and their feedstock requires a host of chemicals to give them "plastic-like" characteristics, which can be harmful to the environment.
Despite these challenges, advancements in technology have led to the development of new biodegradable plastics that are truly compostable. For example, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have invented a way to make compostable plastics break down more easily with just heat and water within a few weeks. Similarly, researchers at the University of Washington have developed bioplastics from powdered blue-green cyanobacteria cells (spirulina) that are compostable in backyard conditions and have comparable mechanical properties to single-use, petroleum-derived plastics.
The development of biodegradable plastics that are truly compostable is a significant step towards reducing plastic pollution and promoting more sustainable practices. However, further research and infrastructure development are needed to address the challenges associated with bioplastics and promote their widespread adoption.
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The demand for recycled plastic is low in the EU
The demand for recycled plastic in the EU is low due to a variety of factors, including high production and energy costs, the complexity of the recycling process, and competition from virgin plastics.
Firstly, the EU faces high production and energy costs associated with plastic recycling. The recycling of plastics is generally more expensive than creating new plastics from virgin materials. This is because the diversity of plastic types and additives used by manufacturers results in a complex raw material stream that is challenging and costly to process. The recycling process often requires additional steps such as grinding, washing, and re-granulating, further increasing costs.
Secondly, the EU's recycling capacity has stagnated, with a low year-on-year increase of only 6% in 2023, marking the lowest growth since 2017. This stagnation is attributed to an overall slowdown in recycling activities, with Germany and Spain leading the rankings in installed plastics recycling capacity. The low demand for recycled plastics in the EU is also impacted by rising imports of virgin and recycled plastics from outside the EU, which often fail to meet EU standards and compete directly with recycled plastics.
Furthermore, the quality of recycled plastics can be inferior to that of virgin plastics. As plastic is recycled multiple times, its quality decreases, limiting its use in certain products. This further reduces the demand for recycled plastics as manufacturers seek higher-quality raw materials.
To address these challenges, the EU has adopted new rules and targets to increase the demand for recycled content in various products. For example, the EU has set a target of 25% recycled content in plastic bottles by 2025 and 30% by 2030. The Green Deal also aims for 55% of plastic packaging waste to be recycled by 2030, with MEPs calling for measures to stimulate the market for recycled plastics. Additionally, the EU is working towards finding circular and climate-friendly ways to manage its plastic waste, such as promoting the use of bio-based, biodegradable, and compostable plastics.
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Frequently asked questions
Biorecycling, or biological recycling, is an emerging technology that uses microbes, such as bacteria or fungi, to break down plastics into their basic components for reuse.
Biorecycling can help reduce the environmental impact of plastic production and provide a more sustainable alternative to traditional recycling methods, which often involve incineration and can have negative health effects.
The enzymes used in biorecycling are currently limited to degrading only a few types of plastics. There are also knowledge gaps and potential environmental risks associated with the release of engineered enzymes that need to be addressed through research.
Various governments and organizations are exploring biorecycling. For instance, a consortium of labs supported by the European Union and China focuses on research and development in this field. In the U.S., the Department of Energy has initiatives to accelerate innovations in plastic recycling technologies, including the Plastics Innovation Challenge.
Other approaches include mechanical recycling, which involves grinding, washing, and re-granulating plastic, and chemical recycling, which uses heat, chemical reactions, or both to recycle plastic waste. Closed-loop recycling is another approach where plastics are broken down and put back together into new products, but it is challenging due to the variety of polymers and materials used in plastic packaging.
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