Chloe Zhang
Genes are not the only factor that determines an organism's traits. The environment also plays a huge role. This is known as developmental plasticity, which refers to the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to distinct environmental conditions. Phenotypic plasticity is a universal property of living things, and all organisms respond to genes and the environment alike. Genes whose expression changes across developmental environments are of special interest to researchers. This is because they can provide insights into the molecular mechanisms that produce phenotypic variants and the evolutionary forces and ecological conditions that shape phenotypic frequencies in populations.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The ability of a given genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to different environments |
| Other Names | Phenotypic plasticity, environmental regulation of phenotype expression |
| Importance | Incredibly important, as it allows organisms to survive in unusual, possibly stressful environments |
| Examples | Squinting bush brown butterfly, leafcutter ants, speckled wood butterflies, rockhopper penguins, humans |
| Reversibility | Some plastic traits are reversible, while others are not |
| Evolutionary Perspective | Presents an opportunity to build a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon by encouraging cross-disciplinary research |
| Genetic Perspective | Genes are not the only factor that determines an organism's traits; the environment also plays a huge role |
| Molecular Mechanisms | DNA methylation, genetic variation, genetic assimilation, genetic accommodation, epigenetic changes |
| Evolutionary Forces | Natural selection, speciation, adaptation |
| Evolutionary Models | 'Development constraints' models |
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What You'll Learn
Genotype and phenotype
Developmental plasticity, a concept that has captivated evolutionary biologists and researchers in human health, underscores the dynamic interplay between genotype and phenotype. It refers to the ability of a given genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to varying environmental conditions during development. This phenomenon highlights that organisms are not solely dictated by their genes but are also significantly shaped by their surroundings.
The influence of the environment on phenotype expression is termed phenotypic plasticity. It is the property of organisms to exhibit distinct phenotypes based on environmental variations. Phenotypic plasticity can manifest in changes to an organism's behaviour, morphology, and physiology. For example, the speckled wood butterfly exhibits phenotypic plasticity, with the number of dots on its hindwings varying depending on location and the time of year.
Genes play a pivotal role in phenotypic plasticity. The expression of specific genes during development or life history transitions is believed to underlie an organism's fundamental plasticity. For instance, the AMY2B gene in dogs, which codes for a protein that aids in starch and glycogen digestion, has a higher copy number in breeds associated with agriculture, enabling them to take advantage of a starch-rich diet.
Additionally, epigenetic changes, which are environmentally induced alterations to DNA that may not be passed on to the next generation, contribute to phenotypic variation. For instance, nutritional deficiencies during childhood can lead to reduced height, but this trait is not inherited by subsequent generations if they have access to adequate nutrition. Thus, phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to adapt to their environment, promoting survival and reproductive success.
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Epigenetics
Developmental plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to distinct environmental conditions. It is a universal property of living things, as all organisms respond to genes and the environment. Phenotypic plasticity is a type of developmental plasticity that encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes, including morphological, physiological, and behavioural changes.
The environment can play a significant role in an organism's traits. For instance, the amount of exercise a person gets can determine their muscle size. Similarly, the amount of food a child receives can impact their height. In leafcutter ants, the shape of their bodies is determined by what they eat as larvae.
In the field of medicine, public health, psychology, economics, and sociology, researchers seek to understand the link between early conditions and adult health. This is important for disease treatment and prevention. Evolutionary biologists also study the impact of early environments on traits related to Darwinian fitness to understand the evolution of complex traits and the selection pressures that shape them.
Developmental plasticity allows organisms to survive in unusual or stressful environments. It can also facilitate adaptation and promote diversification. For example, the squinting bush brown butterfly from eastern Africa can vary its wing colour depending on the season, allowing it to survive in both warm and cool seasons.
In summary, epigenetics plays a crucial role in developmental plasticity by allowing organisms to adapt to their environment through changes in gene expression. These changes can be influenced by environmental factors and can impact an organism's traits and survival.
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Environmental influence
The environment plays a significant role in developmental plasticity, influencing the traits and phenotypes of organisms. Phenotypic plasticity refers to the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to varying environmental conditions. This environmental regulation of phenotype expression is observed in both humans and non-human animals, where early life environments shape later-life traits.
One example of environmental influence on developmental plasticity is the impact of nutrition on human height. If a child does not receive adequate nutrition, they may have stunted growth and be shorter than they would have been if they had received sufficient nutrition. This effect is irreversible, as human height is influenced by both genetics and nutrition, and people stop growing in their teenage years.
The environment can also affect the expression of genes, resulting in phenotypic changes. For instance, in leafcutter ants, all-female ants of the same species exhibit different body shapes based on their diet as larvae. Similarly, humans who exercise regularly will have larger and stronger muscles than those who do not, as muscle size is influenced more by environmental factors than genetic predispositions.
Environmental enrichment (EE) is a concept that has been studied in relation to brain plasticity, particularly in rodents. EE involves modifying the standard laboratory conditions to provide a stimulating environment with social interaction, sensory stimulation, and physical activity. Studies have shown that EE has a profound effect on the central nervous system (CNS) at the functional, anatomical, and molecular levels. It accelerates the maturation of the visual system and enhances plasticity in the cerebral cortex, allowing for the recovery of visual functions in amblyopic animals.
Additionally, developmental plasticity can be influenced by epigenetic changes, which are modifications to DNA that are not always passed on to the next generation. For example, DNA methylation can cause epigenetic changes, resulting in variations in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. These changes can be influenced by environmental factors, such as childhood maltreatment or resource availability, and can have intergenerational effects.
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Evolution and natural selection
Phenotypic plasticity and related processes (such as learning and developmental noise) have been proposed to both accelerate and slow down genetically-based evolutionary change. While mathematical models and simulations have supported both views, no general predictions have been made to determine when these outcomes will occur. However, a general framework has been proposed to study the effects of plasticity on the rate of evolution under directional selection.
The framework is formulated in terms of the fitness gain gradient, which measures the effect of a marginal change in the degree of plasticity on the relationship between the genotypic value of a trait and log fitness. If the gain gradient and the direction of selection have the same sign, an increase in plasticity will amplify the response to selection. Conversely, if they have opposite signs, greater plasticity will lead to a slower response.
For example, in an environment with high carbon dioxide levels, plants with genes that cause them to produce fewer stomata will have an advantage over other plants as they will be able to conserve water while still obtaining sufficient carbon dioxide. These plants will have higher survival and reproduction rates, passing their genes for fewer stomata on to their offspring. Through this process of evolution by natural selection, plant populations with fewer stomata will evolve over many generations.
In the context of human evolution, environment-driven developmental plasticity may have played a fundamental role in the evolution of our species. It likely provided the raw phenotypic variation that was then selectively retained or pruned, facilitating more gradual adaptation via natural selection. For instance, mounting evidence suggests that many key life history traits are strongly shaped by early life experiences and may respond to signals conveyed by the mother across the placenta or via breast milk.
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Molecular mechanisms
At its core, developmental plasticity is about the interaction between genes and the environment. The environment can influence how cells express genes, leading to different phenotypes. This gene-environment interaction is often studied through transcriptomics, which identifies genes whose expression changes across developmental environments. For example, the AMY2B gene in dogs has multiple copies, enabling them to digest starch efficiently and take advantage of a starch-rich diet due to agricultural refuse.
One important mechanism underlying developmental plasticity is epigenetics, which involves changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. For instance, DNA methylation can modify gene activity, and these epigenetic changes can be influenced by environmental factors. While some epigenetic modifications may be reversible during adulthood, others can have irreversible effects on adult phenotypes. Additionally, epigenetic changes are not always passed on to the next generation, as observed in the "squinting bush brown butterfly," where the colour patterns of parents do not determine the colour patterns of their offspring.
Another mechanism contributing to developmental plasticity is genetic variation. Different individuals within a species may have variations in their genes, resulting in distinct phenotypes when exposed to specific environmental conditions. For example, the speckled wood butterfly exhibits two morphs with three or four dots on its hindwings, depending on environmental factors like location and season.
Furthermore, phenotypic plasticity can be influenced by environmental responsiveness, requiring "switch genes" that allow for developmental reprogramming. This reprogramming can lead to genetic accommodation and genetic assimilation, where environmental influences become genetically encoded. For instance, the digestive system's phenotypic plasticity allows animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition and energy requirements.
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Frequently asked questions
Developmental plasticity is the ability of a genotype to produce different phenotypes in response to distinct environmental conditions. It is also referred to as phenotypic plasticity.
The environment can affect our traits by changing how our cells use our DNA. For example, in one environment, a gene may be active, and in another, it may be inactive. These changes are called epigenetic.
The squinting bush brown butterfly (Bicyclus anynana) from eastern Africa can vary its wing colour depending on the season. In the warmer dry season, the butterfly is entirely brown, and in the wet season, it has spots. Another example is the southern rockhopper penguin, which is present in a variety of climates and locations, from subtropical to subantarctic waters.
