Alexei Volkov
Crude oil is a source of raw material for making plastics, but it is not the major source of feedstock for plastics production in the United States. Plastics are produced from natural gas, feedstocks derived from natural gas processing, and feedstocks derived from crude oil refining. Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used to make plastic. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery, which separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains, which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Main ingredient | Crude oil |
| Other ingredients | Natural gas, coal, cellulose, salt |
| Type | Synthetic or biobased |
| Plastic type | Clear, cloudy, solid colour, flexible, rigid, soft, etc. |
| Production process | Distillation, polymerisation, polycondensation |
| Feedstock | Naphtha, other oils |
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What You'll Learn
Crude oil extraction
The extraction process typically involves drilling a long hole into the earth with an oil rig to create an oil well. This drilling process is known as "upstream" in the oil industry. To ensure safety and minimise environmental impact, a steel casing is cemented in place to prevent the pollution of water aquifers. After reaching the target depth, the drill pipe is removed, and a steel pipe, known as the "well casing," is inserted and cemented in place. Rigorous tests are conducted to ensure the pipe's impermeability before proceeding further.
To access the oil, a perforating gun is lowered into the ground and fired into the rock layer, creating holes that connect the oil-bearing rock to the wellhead. This stage is crucial as it unlocks the oil trapped in the rock. Specialised instruments are used to monitor pressure and real-time data from the well. The next step involves pumping fracking fluid, composed of water, sand, and chemicals, at high pressure through the perforations to create tiny cracks in the shale rock, releasing the trapped oil. This technique, known as hydraulic fracturing or fracking, is commonly used when extracting oil from impermeable shale rock.
Once the oil is released, it is collected from the wells and transported via pipelines, barges, trains, trucks, or oil tankers to refineries for further processing. At the refineries, the oil undergoes distillation to separate the different fractions, which are then transformed into higher-value products. The drilling and extraction processes are carefully monitored to adhere to safety standards and minimise environmental disturbances.
Overall, crude oil extraction is a intricate and carefully planned operation that requires significant technological expertise and adherence to safety and environmental regulations. The process involves multiple stages, from exploration and drilling to extraction and transportation, each playing a vital role in safely obtaining this valuable resource.
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Crude oil distillation
Crude oil is a mixture of many different types of hydrocarbon chains. Hydrocarbons are chains of carbon and hydrogen that make up all organic material, including crude oil. Crude oil is refined into useful products through a process called fractional distillation. This process separates the hydrocarbon chains into similar lengths. Fractional distillation occurs in a distillation tower or fractionating column.
The process of fractional distillation involves heating the mixture of chains to the point of boiling. The separated fluids are the 'distillates'. Each distillate has a different density and form at different stages of the fractionating column, with the least dense gases at the top and the denser heavy fuels and bitumen at the bottom. Fractional distillation of crude oil allows the fuel industry to obtain a myriad of petroleum products from the raw material.
The different distillates have different applications. For instance, the least dense distillates are petroleum gases, while the bottom, where it is hottest, can reach temperatures of over 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit to recover the heaviest products such as residual fuel oil. Mid-range distillates include jet fuel, kerosene, and distillates such as home heating oil and diesel fuel.
The products obtained from fractional distillation are used as petrochemical feedstocks for producing plastics. Petrochemical feedstock naphtha and other oils refined from crude oil are used as feedstocks for petrochemical crackers that produce the basic building blocks for making plastics.
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Polymerisation
Plastics are derived from crude oil, natural gas, or coal. Synthetic plastics, which make up the majority of plastics in use today, are made from these fossil fuels. Bio-based plastics, on the other hand, are made from renewable sources such as corn starch, vegetable fats, and bacteria.
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, specifically C5 to C10 hydrocarbons. In the process of steam cracking, also known as steam pyrolysis, naphtha, a petrochemical feedstock refined from crude oil, is heated to a high temperature of around 800°C in the presence of water vapour. This thermal decomposition results in the formation of light hydrocarbons called olefins (ethylene, propylene, butane, and butadiene) and aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylene). These small molecules are then linked together through polymerisation to form long molecular chains known as polymers.
The resulting polymer chains from the crude oil are further processed and mixed with various additives to create plastics with specific properties. These additives include antioxidants, foaming agents, plasticizers, and flame retardants, which enhance the functionality and versatility of the final plastic product. The polymers are then kneaded, heated, melted, and moulded into objects with desired shapes, sizes, and colours, depending on their intended applications.
The type of monomers, their arrangement, and the chemical and physical properties of the polymers can be modified to suit specific applications. For instance, the plasticity of a polymer refers to its ability to withstand the temperature and pressure during the moulding process without breaking. By adjusting different parameters, such as using different elements or rearranging the monomers, the shape, molecular weight, and other characteristics of the polymer can be tailored to meet the requirements of the final plastic product.
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Plastic manufacturing
Thermoplastics are a type of plastic that can be melted and remoulded repeatedly without undergoing significant chemical changes. The manufacturing process for thermoplastics involves melting the plastic material and injecting it into a mould, which is then cooled to solidify the product. Thermoplastics are usually supplied in the form of small pellets or sheets that are heated and formed into the desired shape using various manufacturing processes.
Thermosetting plastics, on the other hand, undergo a chemical change when heated and cannot be remelted or remoulded. The manufacturing process for thermosetting plastics involves heating the plastic material in a mould until it undergoes a chemical reaction and hardens. Polymers in thermosetting materials cross-link during a curing process that is induced by heat, light, or radiation. This curing process forms an irreversible chemical bond, and these plastics decompose when reheated rather than melting.
Elastomers are a type of plastic that can stretch and return to their original shape. The manufacturing process for elastomers involves mixing the plastic material with a curing agent and then heating and moulding the mixture into the desired shape.
Biodegradable plastics are broken down by natural processes over time. The manufacturing process for biodegradable plastics is similar to that of traditional plastics, but the materials used are biodegradable and compostable.
There are several manufacturing processes used in plastic manufacturing, including injection moulding, blow moulding, extrusion, rotational moulding, and thermoforming. Injection moulding is a high-volume manufacturing method where liquid plastic resin is injected into the empty cavity of a forming die, taking on the shape of the interior surface. This process is stable and reliable and accounts for more than 80% of the common plastic items we encounter daily. Rotational moulding also uses a mould tool but the manufacturing process is quite different. The plastic powder is first poured into the cavity of the mould, and then the mould is placed in an oven and slowly rotated on two axes. Gravity is used to stick the plastic to the tool walls and build up the correct thickness.
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Environmental impact
The process of turning crude oil into plastic has several environmental impacts. Firstly, the extraction and transportation of crude oil can result in oil spills, which can have both immediate and long-term environmental consequences. While safety measures are in place to prevent and minimise this risk, spills can still occur during the transfer of oil through pipelines.
Secondly, the refining and distillation of crude oil to produce petrochemicals and feedstocks for plastic manufacturing also have environmental implications. This process involves heating the oil to high temperatures (600-750 degrees Fahrenheit) and separating it into various groups of chemicals, including petroleum, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, and naphtha. While naphtha is the primary feedstock for making plastic, the other chemicals produced during distillation have multiple uses, including fuel for transportation, electricity, and heating. The production and use of these fuels contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change.
Additionally, the creation of synthetic plastics from petrochemicals and feedstocks has environmental consequences. Synthetic plastics are the most common type of plastic, and they persist in the environment for longer periods compared to bio-based plastics. The production of synthetic plastics may involve the use of non-renewable resources, contributing to the depletion of finite oil reserves. It is estimated that the global supply of crude oil will only last until 2050, highlighting the need for alternative sources, such as bioplastics.
Moreover, the widespread use and disposal of plastics have significant environmental impacts. Currently, about 91% of plastic ever made has not been recycled and instead ends up in landfills or as litter in the environment. Plastics can take hundreds of years to break down into smaller pieces, polluting the environment and causing harm to ecosystems and wildlife. The growing demand for plastic and limited oil reserves drive the need for newer plastics derived from renewable resources. However, bioplastics also face challenges, including high production costs, fragility, and the use of fossil fuels in agriculture to create raw biological materials.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic is made from natural materials such as crude oil, natural gas, coal, salt, and cellulose.
Crude oil is heated in a furnace, separating the hydrocarbons into different groups based on their molecular weight. The lighter components rise to the top, while the heavier ones sink to the bottom. This process, called distillation, separates crude oil into several distinct groups of chemicals, one of which is naphtha, which is the primary feedstock for making plastic.
The main ingredient in most plastic materials is a derivative from crude oil and natural gas.
Synthetic plastics are derived from crude oil, natural gas, or coal.
