Recovering Plastics: Recycling's Potential And Limits

Plastic is everywhere, and humans have created around 11 billion metric tons of it to date. However, the vast majority of plastic ends up in landfills, and only a small percentage is recycled. In 2018, the recycling rate of plastic in the United States was 8.7%, and an NGO report claimed that this dropped to around 5% in 2021. The problem is that plastic is expensive to collect and sort, and there are thousands of different types, each requiring unique recycling and disposal methods. Additionally, the plastic industry often engages in greenwashing, perpetuating misinformation and driving widespread pollution for financial gain. While some countries are exploring refill and reuse schemes, as well as extended producer responsibility plans, the crisis continues to worsen, with the industry planning to triple plastic production by 2050.

Plastic recycling rates

A report by Greenpeace found that the vast majority of plastic ends up in landfills, with almost none of it being recycled. This is despite people's efforts to recycle, as many put plastic into their recycling bins. The problem is exacerbated by the increasing production of plastic and the complexity of the different types of plastic, which are expensive to collect and sort.

The National Association for PET Container Resources found that in 2017, only 21% of plastic bottles collected for recycling were turned into new products. Similarly, a report by The Last Beach Clean Up and Beyond Plastics documented a recycling rate of just 5-6% for post-consumer plastic waste in the US in 2021. This is a decline from previous years, as the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported an 8.7% recycling rate for plastics in 2018, amounting to 3 million tons of recycled plastic.

While the overall recycling rate for all plastics is relatively low, the recycling of specific types of plastic containers is more significant. For example, the recycling rate for PET bottles and jars was 29.1% in 2018, while the rate for HDPE natural bottles was 29.3% in the same year.

Some countries and organizations are implementing initiatives to improve plastic recycling rates and waste management. For instance, in Tanzania, a group called Nipe Fagio runs waste management and recycling systems that have significantly reduced landfill waste in several cities. Additionally, companies like Algramo in Chile are exploring refill and reuse schemes, allowing customers to buy liquid products in reusable plastic bottles from a network of filling stations.

Plastic waste management

One key aspect of plastic waste management is recycling. However, despite public efforts to recycle, the recycling rates for plastic lag behind those of other materials such as aluminium, glass, and paper. From the start of plastic production until 2015, only 9% of the world's 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste had been recycled, and only ~1% had been recycled more than once. This low recycling rate is attributed to various factors, including the high costs of collecting and sorting plastic, the existence of thousands of different types of plastic that cannot be melted down together, and the degradation of plastic quality after one or two uses.

To address these challenges, it is crucial to reduce plastic production and develop more recyclable products. This includes creating sustainable alternatives, increasing circularity by extending the lifespan of plastic products, and finding ways to reuse and recycle them. Some countries, like Ghana, are working to establish a circular economy for plastic, which involves banning single-use plastics and implementing robust collection, reuse, and recycling systems. Additionally, waste management techniques such as those employed by Nipe Fagio in Tanzania have proven effective in significantly reducing landfill waste.

Another method of plastic waste management is feedstock recycling, where waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals to create fresh plastic. This process, however, incurs higher energy and capital costs. Plastic can also be burned in energy recovery facilities, although this method has environmental concerns due to the potential release of harmful compounds if not properly controlled. While incineration reduces plastic waste, it does not reduce plastic production or fossil fuel use.

Overall, effective plastic waste management requires a multifaceted approach that prioritises reduction, reuse, and recycling. By addressing the root causes of plastic pollution and implementing sustainable practices, it is possible to mitigate the environmental impact of plastic waste and work towards a greener future.

Plastic waste impact

Plastic is a relatively new invention, with the first examples dating back to the late 1800s. However, its low production cost and versatility have made it one of the most widely used materials today. In western Europe, the average annual plastic consumption is around 150kg per person, more than twice the global average of 60kg. Global plastic consumption is accelerating, with over half of all plastic ever manufactured having been produced since 2000.

The problem of plastic waste is a pressing issue. Plastic does not biodegrade and can take up to 1,000 years to break down, persisting in the environment for generations. It is estimated that only about 9% of all the plastic ever produced has been recycled, with 12% incinerated and the remaining discarded. This plastic waste ends up in landfills, is incinerated, or, in some cases, mismanaged, finding its way into the environment, including the oceans. Marine litter is a significant issue, with 80-85% of it being plastic. This has a detrimental impact on marine life, with species at higher risk of ingesting plastic, suffocating, or becoming entangled.

The impact of plastic waste is not limited to the marine environment. Plastic pollution is ubiquitous in natural and built environments, with microplastics found in every ecosystem on the planet, from the Antarctic tundra to tropical coral reefs. Research indicates that more than 1,500 species in marine and terrestrial environments are known to ingest plastics. The annual intake of microplastics by humans has been estimated to range from 70,000 to over 120,000 particles. These microplastics have been found in human livers, kidneys, and placentas, and the chemicals in plastic products can leach into tap water, potentially causing various health issues.

The production and disposal of plastic also contribute to climate change. The manufacturing of plastic is an energy-intensive process, generating 1.8 billion metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions in 2019, or 3.4% of the global total. Additionally, the incineration of plastic waste contributes to air emissions.

Addressing the plastic waste crisis requires systemic reform, including improved waste management infrastructure and encouraging the development and use of alternatives to single-use plastic products.

Plastic recycling challenges

Plastic recycling is a complex process that requires collaboration between manufacturers, suppliers, and raw material producers. Despite the existence of recycling technologies and infrastructure, several challenges hinder the effectiveness of plastic recycling.

One major challenge is the variety of plastic types and their unique properties. Plastic is a collective term for hundreds of different materials, each with distinct characteristics affecting colour, shape, structure, and melting point. These differences make it crucial to sort plastics into categories to maintain purity during recycling. However, consumers often lack knowledge about various plastics, leading to their combination in recycling processes, which significantly complicates recycling and often results in plastics being incinerated.

Additionally, many products are designed with plastic content that is challenging to separate and recycle. Different plastic types may be mixed or bonded with other materials like glue or metal, making it difficult to extract the plastic for recycling. This issue could be mitigated by considering recycling objectives during the product design stage, making it easier to disassemble products into recyclable waste fractions.

The recycling process is also hindered by economic factors. Virgin raw materials used in manufacturing are sometimes cheaper than recycled plastic, creating a cost disincentive for recycling. Furthermore, the collection and sorting of plastic waste for recycling can be expensive, and in some cases, it is more cost-effective to dump waste rather than recycle it. This is particularly true in emerging markets, where recyclers may need to establish their own collection and sorting systems, incurring additional costs.

Moreover, the lack of comprehensive waste management systems in some countries contributes to plastic recycling challenges. Inadequate waste management infrastructure, especially in emerging economies, can result in plastic waste being dumped, burned, or ending up in landfills instead of being properly recycled.

Finally, the demand for plastics is increasing globally, driven by their favourable production economics and desirable characteristics such as lightweight nature and malleability. This rising demand contributes to significant plastic waste generation, exacerbating the challenges of plastic waste management and recycling.

To address these challenges, collaborative efforts are required, involving governments, intergovernmental organizations, private sectors, and manufacturers. Incentives such as free land or tax exemptions can make recycling more attractive, and the implementation of policies promoting environmental design principles can improve recycling performance.

Plastic recycling alternatives

Plastic is useful, but it is also extremely harmful to the environment. Humans have created around 11 billion metric tons of plastic, and this amount surpasses the biomass of all animals, both on land and in the sea. Only 9% of the 9.1 billion tons of plastic produced since 1950 has been recycled, with the rest ending up in landfills and oceans, causing harm to wildlife.

There are several alternatives to plastic that can help reduce plastic waste. Firstly, individuals can switch to reusable products instead of single-use plastic items. For example, instead of plastic bags, one can use tote bags or natural cloth bags, which can be reused multiple times. Similarly, reusable water bottles can be used instead of single-use plastic water bottles, which often end up in landfills or the environment, harming animals.

Another alternative is to use biodegradable or compostable materials, such as bioplastics, which are made from natural substances instead of petroleum. However, it is important to note that most bioplastics require commercial composting facilities, which may not be accessible to everyone. Additionally, some bioplastics may contain significant amounts of conventional plastic, defeating the purpose of using biodegradable alternatives.

Individuals can also opt for products with minimal packaging or packaging made from sustainable materials. For example, glass, metal, or unlined paper packaging can be preferable to plastic. Sustainable clothing made from organic cotton, wool, hemp, or bamboo is another alternative, as these materials do not shed plastic fibers when washed.

Wood from sustainably-managed forests can replace plastic in household items like cleaning brushes, kitchen utensils, and cutting boards. Pottery and ceramics offer stable and waterproof alternatives for food storage and tableware.

Some companies are exploring refill and reuse schemes, such as the Chilean company Algramo, which allows customers to buy liquid products like shampoo and detergent in reusable plastic bottles from filling stations. This approach not only reduces plastic waste but also eliminates the "poverty tax," where lower-income individuals pay more for buying smaller quantities.

Finally, some countries are implementing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) plans, which require producers of plastic bottles and packaging to provide funding to support the management of these materials after their initial use. This approach ensures that companies take responsibility for the entire lifecycle of their products, including their disposal or recycling.

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