Chloe Zhang
The 20th and 21st centuries have been dubbed the Plastics Age due to the influence and ubiquity of plastic materials in modern society. However, the history of plastics can be traced back to antiquity, with natural plastics such as rubber, amber, horn, shellac, and tortoiseshell being used by humans for centuries. In the 19th century, the usage of plastics experienced significant growth with the development of synthetic plastics. The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who created a plastic derived from cellulose that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate natural substances. This discovery revolutionized manufacturing by freeing humans from the constraints of natural resources and marked the beginning of the plastics revolution.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First synthetic polymer invented | 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt |
| Reason for invention | To provide a substitute for ivory |
| First man-made plastic | Parkesine, invented in 1862 by Alexander Parkes |
| Plastic derived from | Cellulose, which could be moulded when heated |
| Used for | Combs, buttons, knife handles, photographic film, and other consumer goods |
| First fully synthetic plastic | Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland |
| Plastic in the 1800s | Natural plastics such as horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber, and shellac were used |
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What You'll Learn
Natural plastics
In the 19th century, the demand for ivory, used in items from piano keys to billiard balls, was threatening elephants with extinction. To address this, in 1862, Birmingham-born inventor Alexander Parkes patented Parkesine, a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell. Parkesine was made from cellulose nitrate—cotton fibres dissolved in nitric and sulphuric acids and then mixed with vegetable oil. Many early examples of Parkesine products, such as printers' moulds, cutlery handles, buttons, and combs, can be found on display today at London's Science Museum.
In 1869, John Wesley Hyatt built on Parkes' invention, treating cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and made to imitate natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This discovery was revolutionary, as it freed human manufacturing from the limits of nature. Advertisements praised celluloid, derived from Hyatt's invention, as the saviour of the elephant and the tortoise.
Another natural polymer is rubber, which was played with by the Olmecs in Mexico over a millennium before Christ. In the 1840s, the American Charles Goodyear and the British Thomas Hancock patented "vulcanised" rubber.
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Synthetic plastics
The word "plastic" originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". Plastics are polymers, which are materials made of long chains of molecules. Polymers are abundant in nature; cellulose, for example, is a common natural polymer that makes up the cell walls of plants.
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor. This discovery was revolutionary, as it meant humans were no longer constrained by the limits of nature. Hyatt's plastic could be crafted into a variety of shapes and made to imitate natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This invention was particularly significant because, by the middle of the 19th century, some animal-derived materials used in plastics, such as ivory, were becoming scarce due to industrialised goods production.
In 1907, Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, which contained no molecules found in nature. Bakelite was heat-resistant and durable, and could be easily shaped. It was used for insulators, radios, telephone casings, saucepan handles, electrical sockets, and ashtrays.
The creation of synthetic plastics helped free people from the social and economic constraints imposed by the scarcity of natural resources. However, the use of plastics has had negative environmental repercussions.
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The creation of Bakelite
Baekeland's initial intention was to find a replacement for shellac, a material in limited supply as it was made from the secretion of lac insects. He produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called Novolak, but it was not a market success. He then began experimenting with strengthening wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin rather than coating it. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced a hard, mouldable material that he named Bakelite, after himself and the heat-curing process it required.
Bakelite was the first fully synthetic plastic, meaning it contained no molecules found in nature. It was also the first synthetic resin, representing a significant advance over earlier plastics that were based on modified natural materials. It could be moulded and then hardened into any shape, and its electrical non-conductivity and heat-resistant properties made it a great commercial success. Bakelite was used in electrical insulators, radio and telephone casings, kitchenware, jewellery, pipe stems, children's toys, and firearms.
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The impact of ivory demand
Ivory has been a highly valued commodity since ancient times, with some of the oldest trading networks in human history centred around it. The demand for ivory has had a significant impact on elephant populations, with certain populations being driven to extinction. In the 1800s, as trade with Africa expanded, ivory became readily available and was used for various ornamental and practical purposes, including piano keys, billiard balls, knife handles, and carvings. This led to a severe decline in elephant populations, particularly in Central Africa, as traders ventured into regions where elephants were still plentiful.
The Chokwe hunters from Angola, successful collectors of beeswax, turned their guns on their neighbours, penetrating the heartland of the Lunda empire in the 1880s. They sold their victims as slaves and traded their ivory with the Portuguese. The ivory trade in Central Africa brought disruption and violence, with powerful rivals vying for control. Msiri, the ruler of a large conquest state, traded guns for ivory and took over the eastern slave trade, competing with the Swahili trade community.
The demand for ivory in the 1800s also had a global impact, with ivory being traded along the Northern Silk Road to western nations as early as the first century BC. The increase in wealth in Japan led to a rise in the consumption of solid ivory hanko (name seals), contributing to the massive African elephant decline in the 1980s. Artists in Europe during the Art Deco era, such as Ferdinand Preiss and Claire Colinet, also used ivory in their sculptured artworks.
The development of synthetic materials, such as plastic, in the late 1800s, offered a substitute for ivory and helped reduce the pressure on elephant populations. John Wesley Hyatt invented the first synthetic polymer in 1869, inspired by the need for an ivory substitute. This discovery was revolutionary, freeing human manufacturing from the constraints of nature and offering a potential solution to the destructive forces of human need.
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The environmental repercussions
The development and mass production of synthetic plastics in the 20th century, such as Bakelite, marked a shift from natural materials that were becoming scarce and costly. However, the environmental impact of this transition is now evident. Plastic waste has contributed to the pollution of our planet, with single-use plastic items being a major contributor. The over-exploitation of natural resources for plastic production, such as petroleum and other fossil fuels, has led to concerns about sustainability and the environmental consequences of extraction processes.
The plastic problem has prompted global action, with governments and organizations proposing solutions such as the Global Plastics Treaty to reduce plastic waste. The shift towards a circular economy model, which promotes recycling and reusing plastic, is gaining traction. There is also a growing emphasis on using renewable and biodegradable materials, as well as reducing the consumption of single-use plastics.
While plastic has revolutionized manufacturing and benefited the environment by reducing the reliance on certain natural resources, the consequences of its widespread adoption are now undeniable. The environmental repercussions of plastic usage have become a critical issue that demands urgent attention and collective efforts to mitigate its impact and foster a more sustainable future.
To address the environmental repercussions of plastic usage, a multifaceted approach is necessary. Firstly, there needs to be a significant improvement in recycling infrastructure and a cultural shift towards valuing and prolonging the life of plastic products, similar to the early plastics industry. Secondly, there should be a focus on transitioning to renewable and biodegradable materials, minimizing the use of non-renewable resources, and reducing the consumption of single-use plastics. Lastly, innovation in detection and monitoring technologies for polluting chemicals is vital to tackle the global issue of atmospheric pollution caused by plastics.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, but not the kind we know today. In the 1800s, natural plastics such as horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber and shellac were used. These materials were derived from non-fossil raw materials and required minimal processing.
Natural plastics were used for a variety of purposes, including the creation of medallions, cutlery, combs, and even piano keys.
Natural materials used for plastics, like ivory, were becoming scarce and driving some species to extinction. Synthetic plastics were seen as a way to protect the natural world from human needs.
The first synthetic plastic, Parkesine, was invented in 1862 by Alexander Parkes. It was derived from cellulose and could be moulded when heated.
Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first industrial plastic, in 1907. It was the first fully synthetic plastic, containing no molecules found in nature.
