Sofia Martinez
Plastic is a broad term for a huge class of materials that can be shaped when soft and then hardened to retain a given shape. Plastics are organic materials, like wood or wool, and are composed of polymers—large molecules that are shaped like long strings, usually tons of carbon in a big chain. The ingredients of plastic depend on the thread type, and can come from many sources, including natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. Today, most plastics are synthetic, and are made by linking chains of molecules (monomers) together to create a large molecule (a polymer).
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What You'll Learn
- Plastic's origins: Fossil fuels, natural gas, coal, and crude oil
- Plastic's impact on human health: Toxic chemicals and microplastics
- Plastic's environmental impact: Biodiversity loss, climate change, and pollution
- Plastic's production: Polymerisation, polycondensation, and monomers
- Plastic's alternatives: Bioplastics, biodegradable plastics, and recycling
Plastic's origins: Fossil fuels, natural gas, coal, and crude oil
Plastic is derived from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. Fossil fuels, which include coal, natural gas, and crude oil, are the primary sources of plastic. These fossil fuels are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and other minerals.
The commonly accepted theory is that fossil fuels are formed from the remains of living organisms, specifically tiny plants and animals called plankton, that existed during the Jurassic era. Over time, these organisms were buried beneath the heavy layers of sediment in the Earth's mantle due to compression from heat and pressure. In an oxygen-deprived environment, the dead organisms decomposed, transforming into tiny pockets of oil and gas. Crude oil and natural gas accumulated in reservoirs, which are often found at the bottom of the oceans. Coal, on the other hand, mainly originated from dead plants.
Crude oil is accessed through drilling, which can be costly and messy. Once the crude oil is extracted, it undergoes a refining process to transform it into different petroleum products. The oil is heated in a furnace and sent to a distillation unit, where it separates into lighter components called fractions. One of these fractions, naphtha, is crucial in plastic production. During the polymerisation process, monomers (small molecules) join together to form polymers (long molecules). Many polymers used in plastic are derived from chemicals obtained from crude oil. For example, molecules of ethane can combine to create polythene, a common plastic used in packaging, bags, and bottles.
Natural gas, particularly ethane, also plays a significant role in plastic production. Through processes like cracking and polymerisation, natural gas is converted into polyethylene. The cracking process involves using heat energy to break apart molecules to form new ones. Ethane molecules lose two hydrogen molecules, resulting in ethylene molecules. Ethylene undergoes polymerisation to become polyethylene.
Over 99% of plastic is made from chemicals sourced from fossil fuels, with the vast majority being synthetic plastic derived from crude oil and natural gas due to the ease of manufacturing. However, there is a growing demand for newer plastics derived from renewable resources as the limited oil reserves become increasingly sought after.
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Plastic's impact on human health: Toxic chemicals and microplastics
Plastics are derived from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. The process of extracting these fossil fuels and refining them into plastic releases toxic substances into the air and water. These toxins have been linked to a range of adverse health effects, including cancer, neurological, reproductive, and developmental issues, as well as impairment of the immune system.
Communities living near refining facilities are particularly at risk of exposure to these toxins, which can also accumulate in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms, further exposing humans through the food chain and drinking water.
In addition to the toxic chemicals used in their production, plastics themselves can also be harmful to human health. Microplastics, which are small plastic particles, have been detected in human blood, lungs, and placentas, as well as in environmental and human samples. Exposure to microplastics can occur through oral intake, inhalation, and skin contact, with Europeans exposed to about 11,000 particles per person per year of microplastics through shellfish consumption alone.
The health effects of microplastics include oxidative stress, DNA damage, organ dysfunction, metabolic disorder, immune response, neurotoxicity, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Recent studies have also found a correlation between the presence of microplastics in the human body and inflammatory bowel disease symptoms, respiratory complications, and increased disease risk due to the presence of pathogens on plastic waste.
As plastic production increases, human exposure to these toxic chemicals and microplastics will only grow, highlighting the need to address the global plastic production, use, and disposal to reduce the threats to human health.
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Plastic's environmental impact: Biodiversity loss, climate change, and pollution
Plastics are made from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. The process of extraction, production, and disposal of plastic releases toxic substances into the air, water, and soil, negatively impacting the environment and human health. Plastic pollution is a pressing environmental issue, with plastic waste found everywhere on Earth, from Mount Everest to the deepest part of the oceans. The pervasive presence of plastic has significant adverse effects on biodiversity, ecosystems, and climate change.
Biodiversity Loss
Plastic pollution poses a severe threat to biodiversity, affecting both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The leakage of plastics and associated chemicals into the environment occurs at various stages of the plastic life cycle, from production to disposal. Marine ecosystems bear the brunt of plastic pollution, with an estimated 14 million tons of plastic entering the oceans annually. Plastic accounts for 80% of all marine debris, causing an estimated $13 billion in annual environmental damage to these ecosystems. Marine species are particularly vulnerable, with studies showing that almost 800 marine species are affected by plastic pollution. Baby marine turtles, for example, have been found with harmful plastic debris in their stomachs.
Plastic pollution also impacts freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. The toxic chemicals released during the extraction and production of plastics contaminate local environments, and the incineration of plastic waste releases harmful microplastics and nanoparticles into the atmosphere. These microplastics are ingested by wildlife, leading to punctured organs and intestinal blockages. The accumulation of plastics and chemicals in the environment disrupts ecosystems and impedes the ability of plant and animal species to deliver essential services to humanity.
Climate Change
Single-use plastics, which make up half of the annual global plastic production of over 300 million tons, significantly contribute to climate change. As these plastics are derived from fossil fuels, their production and transportation emit vast amounts of greenhouse gases. It is estimated that the extraction of fossil fuels and their transport to plastic factories emit 1.5 to 12.5 million metric tons of greenhouse gases annually. Additionally, clearing forested land for oil extraction and pipeline construction has released more than 1.6 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
The pervasive presence of plastic pollution exacerbates climate change. Plastic does not decompose but breaks up into microplastics, which persist in the environment for hundreds of years. These microplastics are transported by air and ocean currents, spreading toxic chemicals and further contaminating ecosystems. The production, use, and disposal of single-use plastics contribute to a throw-away culture, intensifying the climate crisis.
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Plastic's production: Polymerisation, polycondensation, and monomers
Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. Crude oil must be processed before it can be used to make plastic. This process begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery, which separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components called fractions. One of these fractions, naphtha, is crucial for plastic production.
There are two main processes used to produce plastics: polymerisation and polycondensation. Both methods require specific catalysts. In a polymerisation reactor, monomers such as ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymer chains. This process can be performed in two ways: addition polymerisation and chain growth polymerisation. In addition polymerisation, monomers are added together in a long chain, with a catalyst introduced to facilitate the process. In chain growth polymerisation, monomers with double bonds are used so that carbon atoms can react to form polymers.
Polycondensation is a form of step-growth polymerisation, where linear polymers are produced from bifunctional monomers. This process involves the formation of polymers through the condensation of monomers, resulting in the elimination of byproducts such as water and alcohols. Common condensation polymers include polyesters, nylon, polyacetals, and proteins.
The versatility, ease of manufacture, and relatively low cost of plastics make them some of the most useful materials for a wide range of applications. Polyethylene and polypropylene, in particular, are two of the major plastic types found in many consumer goods, from car parts to shopping bags to water pipes.
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Plastic's alternatives: Bioplastics, biodegradable plastics, and recycling
Plastic is made from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and most commonly, crude oil. While plastic has been instrumental in advancing science, medicine, and society, it has also contributed to environmental degradation. Of the 9.1 billion tons of plastic produced globally since 1950, only 9% has been recycled, with the rest ending up in landfills and oceans, causing significant harm to wildlife and the natural environment. As such, there is a growing need and demand for eco-friendly plastic alternatives.
Bioplastics
Bioplastics are plastic-like substances derived from natural resources such as vegetable oils, starches, and biomass. They are often produced with renewable raw materials, microorganisms, petrochemicals, or a combination of these. Bioplastics are considered a more sustainable alternative to traditional plastics, with the potential to reduce petroleum consumption in plastic production by 15-20% by 2025. Examples of bioplastics include cornstarch, seaweed, and mushroom packaging, which can be used for disposable items such as packaging, cutlery, and food service containers.
Biodegradable Plastics
Biodegradable plastics are those that can be decomposed by microorganisms into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. They are typically produced from renewable raw materials, microorganisms, or petrochemicals. Biodegradable plastics, such as aliphatic polyesters, have the advantage of being fully decomposable, although they may require access to industrial composting systems. For instance, polycaprolactone (PCL) is a synthetic aliphatic polyester that degrades after six weeks of composting but has not been widely adopted due to manufacturing costs.
Recycling
Recycling is another essential strategy in reducing plastic waste. However, the recycling rate for plastic is currently low, with only 9% of the world's plastic waste being recycled. To improve this rate, regulations that limit the use of conventional plastics and promote the use of biodegradable alternatives can be effective. For example, Italy introduced a law in 2011 making biodegradable plastic bags compulsory, encouraging the adoption of eco-friendly options.
In conclusion, while plastic has been integral to various industries, its environmental impact has spurred the development of alternatives. Bioplastics, biodegradable plastics, and improved recycling methods offer potential solutions to reduce plastic waste and mitigate its harmful effects on the environment.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastics are made from polymers, which are large molecules that are shaped like long strings. Plastics can be made from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil.
There are synthetic plastics, which are derived from fossil fuels such as crude oil, natural gas, or coal. Then there are bio-based plastics, which come from renewable sources such as carbohydrates, fats, and oils. There are dozens of different types of plastics, including polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Kevlar, Nomex, and Twaron.
Plastic is made through a process called polymerization, where small molecules called monomers are chemically bonded into long chains. This process can be achieved through addition polymerization or condensation polymerization.
