Alexei Volkov
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, is the process by which the nervous system reorganizes its structure, functions, or connections in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli. This phenomenon was first observed in 1793 by Italian anatomist Michele Vincenzo Malacarne, and the term 'plasticity' was first used in the context of behaviour in 1890 by William James, who described it as a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once. The term 'neural plasticity' was later popularised by Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski in 1948. Today, neuroplasticity is understood as a complex, multifaceted property of the brain, encompassing structural and functional changes, with functional plasticity referring to the brain's ability to adapt the functional properties of a network of neurons, and structural plasticity referring to the brain's ability to change its physical structure as a result of learning.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, is the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections. |
| Other Names | Brain plasticity, neural plasticity, neuronal plasticity |
| Discovery | The term plasticity was first used in the context of behaviour in 1890 by William James. The first person to use the term neural plasticity appears to have been the Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski in 1948. |
| Types | Structural neuroplasticity, functional neuroplasticity, synaptic plasticity, developmental plasticity, experience-dependent plasticity, experience-independent plasticity, short-term plasticity, long-term plasticity |
| Examples | Circuit and network changes that result from learning a new ability, information acquisition, environmental influences, pregnancy, caloric intake, practice/training, and psychological stress. |
| Occurrence | Neuroplasticity occurs throughout the lifetime, but certain types of changes are more predominant at specific ages. |
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What You'll Learn
Structural plasticity
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, is the brain's ability to adapt structurally and functionally. It involves the nervous system's ability to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.
The concept of structural plasticity is closely tied to the idea of synaptic plasticity, which refers to the ability to make long-lasting changes in the strength of neuronal connections. This phenomenon was first discovered in 1973 when researchers found that repetitive stimulation of presynaptic fibres resulted in heightened responses from postsynaptic neurons. Synaptic plasticity is based on the concept of long-term potentiation, where the postsynaptic neuron adds more neurotransmitter receptors, enhancing the synapse over time.
The understanding of structural plasticity has significant implications for human development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage. It highlights the brain's remarkable capacity for adaptation and reorganisation, providing valuable insights for therapeutic interventions and enhancing our understanding of brain function.
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Functional plasticity
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, involves adaptive structural and functional changes to the brain. It is the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.
Homologous area adaptation
This is the assumption of a particular cognitive process by a homologous region in the opposite hemisphere. For instance, through homologous area adaptation, a cognitive task is shifted from a damaged part of the brain to its homologous area on the opposite side of the brain.
Cross-modal reassignment
Cross-modal reassignment involves the reassignment of a cognitive task to a different sensory modality. For example, blind people can use their visual cortex for language processing, demonstrating the brain's ability to adapt and reassign functions to different modalities.
Map expansion
Map expansion refers to the expansion of a cortical map representing a particular body part or function. This can occur through repeated use or intense stimulation of a specific body part, resulting in an enlarged representation in the brain. For example, studies have shown that musicians have a larger cortical map for their fingers compared to non-musicians.
Compensatory masquerade
Compensatory masquerade involves the recruitment of additional brain regions to compensate for a deficit or loss of function. This can include the use of alternative neural pathways or brain areas to perform a task that was previously accomplished by a different set of neurons.
These four types of functional plasticity highlight the brain's remarkable ability to adapt, reorganize, and rewire its neural connections in response to various stimuli and experiences.
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Synaptic plasticity
The idea that synapses could change, and that this change depended on how active or inactive they were, was first proposed in 1949 by Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb. This concept is often referred to as "Hebbian plasticity" or "Hebbian theory". According to this theory, coordinated activity between a presynaptic terminal and a postsynaptic membrane will make the synaptic connection stronger. This occurs through the addition of more neurotransmitter receptors, which lowers the threshold that is needed for stimulation.
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Experience-dependent plasticity
During development, experience-dependent plasticity is most evident, and it can have long-lasting effects, especially when experiences occur in early life. For example, in the visual cortex, altered visual experience can cause drastic changes in axonal and dendritic structures. Adolescence is also a critical period, with structural changes in the nervous system, such as decreased cell proliferation and adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
In adulthood, experience-dependent plasticity tends to be more restricted, typically occurring in response to severe alterations in sensory inputs, such as peripheral lesions. However, the adult brain remains capable of modification through various manipulations, such as perceptual learning and visual deprivation. Psychophysical studies show that repeated exposure to similar stimuli in adulthood can improve our ability to discriminate between them, highlighting the brain's adaptability.
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Neuronal regeneration
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, is the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections. It is a process that involves adaptive structural and functional changes to the brain.
The discovery of neural and glial precursor cells in the adult brain has challenged the long-held belief that the adult central nervous system (CNS) could not recover from injuries. These precursor cells, found in specific regions of the brain, can migrate to injured areas, demonstrating the potential for neuronal regeneration. However, neuroregeneration in the adult brain is hindered by inhibitory factors, particularly the presence of glial cells and an unfavourable extracellular environment. Glial scar formation, for instance, acts as a barrier to axonal regeneration.
Several approaches have emerged to enhance neuronal regeneration. One strategy involves blocking inhibitory receptors or their ligands, such as the Nogo receptor (NgR1) and its ligand, Nogo A, which impede neurite outgrowth. Additionally, advancements in stem cell technology, including human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), offer promising avenues for neural cell replacement. The ability to reprogramme somatic cells directly into neuronal cells has accelerated the production of mature neuronal cell types, providing innovative approaches for nervous system regeneration.
Furthermore, neuronal regeneration can be enhanced by removing inhibitory mechanisms in the pathway. For example, the expression of α9β1 tenascin-binding integrin, combined with the β1-binding integrin activator kindlin-1, has shown promising results in regenerating crushed dorsal root ganglia. This combination overcame the inhibitory effects of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), allowing axons to grow over an impressive distance.
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Frequently asked questions
Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity or brain plasticity, is the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.
There are two types of neuroplasticity: structural neuroplasticity and functional neuroplasticity. Structural plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change its physical structure, for example, by creating new neurons. Functional plasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of a network of neurons.
Neuroplasticity has significant implications for healthy development, learning, memory, and recovery from brain damage. It also has important applications in physiotherapeutic clinical interventions, such as specific exercise training, cognitive training, and neuropharmacology.
