Alexei Volkov
The 20th and 21st centuries have been dubbed the Plastics Age, and for good reason. Plastics have become an essential part of our lives, with production and consumption surging at an unprecedented pace. While the history of plastics dates back to ancient times, with people harnessing the plastic properties of materials like rubber and amber, it is in the last century and a half that humans have created synthetic polymers, revolutionizing manufacturing and changing our world. From the discovery of synthetic plastic in the 19th century to the commercial triumph of PVC in the 20th century, and now with concerns about plastic waste and pollution, the story of plastic is complex and ever-evolving.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest known plastic | Latex, used in South America around 1600 BCE |
| First synthetic plastic | Parkesine, derived from plant cellulose |
| First flexible and transparent material | Cellophane, introduced in 1908 |
| Commercial triumph of PVC | Commenced in 1908 with the introduction of cellophane |
| First plasticizing of PVC | Waldo Semon in 1926 |
| First industrial production of polystyrene | 1930 |
| First polyethylene | ICI in 1933 |
| Year plastic entered civilian life | 1950 |
| Amount of plastic produced since 1950 | 8,300 million metric tons |
| Percentage of plastic waste since 1950 | 79% |
| Percentage of plastic waste that has been incinerated since 1950 | 12% |
| Percentage of plastic waste that has been recycled since 1950 | 9% |
| Percentage of plastic produced in the last 13 years | 50% |
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What You'll Learn
Plastic's ancient origins
The use of plastic in its modern form is largely a 20th-century phenomenon, but its ancient origins can be traced back to the use of natural plastics. Centuries before the Common Era, people utilised materials such as rubber, amber, horn, and tortoise shell, which exhibited plastic properties when heated and moulded. These early plastics were derived from non-fossil raw materials like oil and required minimal processing. The earliest known plastic manipulated by humans is believed to have been latex, used in South America around 1,600 years before the Common Era for crafting balls and figurines.
The quest for synthetic alternatives to natural materials emerged in the 19th century, spurred by the scarcity of certain animal-derived resources. For instance, the demand for ivory, used in items like piano keys and billiard balls, threatened elephants with extinction. This led to efforts to find substitutes, and in 1869, John Wesley Hyatt invented the first synthetic polymer, inspired by a New York firm's offer of a substantial reward for an ivory alternative.
Another significant milestone in the ancient origins of plastic was the creation of Parkesine by Alexander Parkes in the 19th century. Derived from plant cellulose, Parkesine was the earliest incarnation of synthetic plastic. It possessed characteristics such as rigidity, flexibility, water resistance, and amenability to shaping with tools. The discovery of Parkesine sparked further exploration into the creation of new plastics and their diverse applications.
The early decades of the 20th century witnessed the formation of alliances between the petroleum and chemical industries, leading to the establishment of companies like Dow Chemicals, ExxonMobil, DuPont, and BASF, which remain major producers of raw material resins for the plastics industry. In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic containing no molecules found in nature. Bakelite was a versatile material used for insulation and mechanical mass production, marking a significant step towards the widespread use of synthetic plastics.
The period between the 1930s and 1940s saw the introduction of various plastics with diverse applications. For instance, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) found use in the manufacturing of rigid and flexible products, respectively. Polycarbonate (PC), with its exceptional transparency and impact resistance, also made its debut during this time. The discovery of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) in the early 20th century by Russian chemists Ivan Ostromislensky and Fritz Klatte laid the groundwork for its successful commercialisation by Waldo Semon in 1926, who developed a method to make PVC more pliable and easier to manufacture.
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The first synthetic plastic
Plastic is a word that originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". Over the last century and a half, humans have learned how to make synthetic polymers, using natural substances like cellulose, or carbon atoms from petroleum and other fossil fuels.
The earliest known plastic manipulated by humans is believed to have been latex, used to craft balls and figurines around 1,600 years before our era in South America. While the history of plastics has its roots in antiquity, it wasn’t until the 19th century that the first synthetic polymer was invented.
In 1862, Birmingham-born artisan-cum-chemist Alexander Parkes patented Parkesine, derived from plant cellulose. It was a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell, and items like combs and billiard balls became affordable to many more people. However, Parkesine was not a commercial success for Parkes, and he sold the rights to his invention.
In 1907, Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland invented the first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite. He combined two chemicals, formaldehyde and phenol, under heat and pressure, creating a hard, mouldable material. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and ideally suited for mechanical mass production. It sparked a consumer boom in affordable yet desirable products, such as radios and telephones.
The creation of Bakelite was revolutionary for the chemical industry, and its commercial success inspired the industry to develop other synthetic plastics.
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Plastic's commercial triumph
The history of plastic can be traced back to centuries before the Common Era, when people used materials like rubber, amber, horn, and tortoise shell, to create objects through heating and moulding. The earliest known plastic manipulated by humans is believed to have been latex, used in South America around 1,600 years before the Common Era. However, the commercial triumph of plastic truly began in the late 19th century and accelerated in the 20th century, earning it the moniker "the Plastics Age".
One of the key milestones in the history of plastic was the discovery of Parkesine by Alexander Parkes in the 19th century. Parkesine, derived from plant cellulose, was the earliest synthetic plastic, exhibiting characteristics such as rigidity, flexibility, water resistance, and amenability to shaping. This discovery set the stage for the development of synthetic plastics that would revolutionise various industries.
In 1908, Swiss chemist J. Brandenberger introduced cellophane, the first flexible and fully transparent material. This marked the beginning of the commercial triumph of PVC (polyvinyl chloride). Waldo Semon, in collaboration with B.F. Goodrich in 1926, further advanced the processing of PVC by incorporating additives, making it more pliable and easier to manufacture.
The 1930s saw significant advancements in the plastics industry, with the discovery of polyethylene, a polymer of ethylene, which is now the world's most abundant plastic. Polyethylene is strong, flexible, and heat-resistant, making it ideal for a wide range of applications. During World War II, polyethylene found its first practical use in insulating radar cabling, and soon after, it was utilised in consumer products such as shopping bags and Tupperware.
The post-war period witnessed a surge in plastic consumption as it replaced more expensive materials like paper, glass, and metal in throwaway items and consumer packaging. The economics of mass-produced, cheap plastic products led to a single-use culture, with the PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottle becoming emblematic of this shift. The introduction of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and the diversification of polyester applications across various industrial sectors further solidified the commercial triumph of plastics.
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Plastic's environmental impact
While plastic is a relatively new invention, with the earliest examples dating back to the late 1800s, its low production cost and versatility have made it one of the most widely used materials today. However, plastic's durability means that it persists in the environment for generations, leading to significant environmental concerns.
The production, use, and disposal of plastics have negative consequences at every stage of their life cycle. Plastic waste does not break down and instead accumulates in the environment, polluting the air, waterways, agricultural soils, rivers, and oceans. Plastic pollution has become ubiquitous, with microplastics and nanoplastics found in every ecosystem on the planet, from the Antarctic tundra to tropical coral reefs. Marine life is particularly affected, with more than 1,500 species in marine and terrestrial environments known to ingest plastics, which can cause suffocation or entanglement.
The toxic additives and chemicals used in plastic products can contaminate the surrounding environment and enter the bodies of animals and humans. Research has found micro and nanoplastics in all sources of water, types of food, placentas of pregnant people, and human stool. The ingestion or inhalation of microplastics can lead to severe health issues, including chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and an increased likelihood of stroke.
Furthermore, plastic production contributes to climate change, with annual emissions related to plastic production in the EU amounting to around 13.4 million tonnes of CO2. The infrastructure supporting plastic production also poses risks, as the release of toxins during pumping or piping feedstocks can cause damage to sensory organs, impact bodily systems, and impair organs.
The issue of plastic waste has prompted the EU to develop a plastics strategy as part of its circular economy action plan. This strategy includes specific rules, targets, and guidelines for single-use plastics, plastic packaging, microplastics, and biodegradable alternatives.
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Green' plastics
Plastic was first synthesized in the early 19th century, so the anniversary year for plastic is already well underway! As the world reflects on the impact of this material over the last two centuries, the focus is also on the future of plastics—specifically, on the development of eco-friendly, or 'green', alternatives.
Green plastics are those that are designed to have a lesser impact on the environment. This can be achieved in a number of ways, including the use of sustainable and renewable resources in their production, the utilization of biodegradable materials, and the implementation of recycling processes.
One of the key goals of green plastics is to reduce the environmental footprint of conventional plastics, which are often derived from petroleum products. By contrast, green plastics are typically made from renewable biomass sources, such as corn starch, vegetable oils, and pea protein. These bio-based plastics can be used for a variety of applications, including packaging, agriculture, and even medical devices. For example, polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable plastic alternative to petroleum-based plastics that is made from renewable resources like corn starch. It is commonly used in food packaging and disposable tableware.
Another important aspect of green plastics is their ability to be recycled and reused. Traditional plastics often end up in landfills or contribute to ocean pollution due to their non-biodegradable nature. In contrast, green plastics are designed to be easily recyclable, with some even being compostable. This helps reduce waste and encourages a more sustainable approach to plastic consumption. The use of recycled content in green plastics further reduces the need for virgin resources, helping to close the loop on the plastic lifecycle.
The development of green plastics involves considering the entire product lifecycle, from the sourcing of raw materials to the end-of-life disposal or recycling of the product. It also requires balancing the mechanical and thermal properties of the plastic with its environmental benefits. Despite the challenges, the shift towards green plastics is gaining momentum due to consumer demand, environmental concerns, and legislative changes. As we move towards a more sustainable future, the adoption of eco-friendly alternatives to traditional plastics will play a crucial role in reducing our environmental impact.
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Frequently asked questions
The anniversary year for plastic is generally considered to be 1869, when the first synthetic polymer was invented by John Wesley Hyatt.
The first synthetic polymer was invented by Hyatt in response to a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for anyone who could provide a substitute for ivory. This plastic, known as Parkesine, was derived from plant cellulose and exhibited characteristics of being both rigid and flexible, as well as water-resistant and opaque.
Here are some other notable dates in the development and use of plastic:
- 1908: Swiss chemist J. Brandenberger introduced the first flexible and transparent material, cellophane, marking the commercial triumph of PVC.
- 1926: Waldo Semon, in collaboration with B.F. Goodrich, devised a method for plasticizing PVC, making it more pliable and easier to manufacture.
- 1932: ICI had its first big plastic success with Perspex.
- 1933: A team at ICI discovered polyethylene, a polymer of ethylene that is strong, flexible, and heat-resistant.
- 1941: 'Melamine-formaldehyde, MF' (Formica) plastics were introduced into kitchens and furniture.
Plastic has evolved from its early forms derived from natural, non-fossil raw materials such as rubber, amber, horn, and tortoise shell to the synthetic polymers of today, which are often made using carbon atoms from petroleum and other fossil fuels. The development of plastic has led to a range of applications, from flexible items like bags and films to rigid products like bottles and containers. However, the environmental impact of plastic has become a growing concern, particularly in the postwar years and the 1960s when plastic debris was first observed in the oceans.
Plastic's durability, which makes it a useful material, also poses challenges for disposal. Some types of plastic can take thousands of years to degrade in landfills, and the degradation process can pollute oceans, air, and ecosystems. The persistence of plastic waste and its presence as microplastics in the environment and our bodies have raised health and ecological concerns.
