Maya Ellison
Plastic is a synthetic or semi-synthetic material composed primarily of polymers. The word 'plastic' is derived from the Ancient Greek 'plastikos', meaning 'capable of being shaped or moulded'. Plastics are typically made from petrochemicals or natural resources such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. They are valued for their durability, low cost, and ease of production, and are used in a wide range of products, from toys to medical devices. However, plastic waste and pollution are significant issues, with most plastics being non-biodegradable and harmful to the environment and wildlife.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Composition | Synthetic or semi-synthetic materials composed primarily of polymers |
| Origin of name | Ancient Greek πλαστικός (plastikos), meaning "capable of being shaped or molded" |
| First man-made plastic | Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 |
| First fully synthetic plastic | Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907 |
| Raw materials | Natural gas, coal, starch, cellulose, crude oil, salt |
| Manufacturing methods | Polymerization, polycondensation, CNC machining, 3D printing, extrusion, injection moulding, thermo-forming, cold-forming |
| Qualities | Durability, low cost, ease of production, lightweight, flexibility, non-conductive, chemical resistance, low toxicity, low melting point, highly malleable, does not rust |
| Applications | Toys, electronics, automotive, packaging, medical devices, riot gear, greenhouses, CDs, sunglasses, polyester, polyamides, water and sewer delivery systems |
| Environmental impact | Not biodegradable, causes pollution, hard to recycle, petroleum-based (non-renewable) |
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What You'll Learn
Plastic's environmental impact
Plastic pollution is one of the most pressing environmental issues today. Plastic is a relatively new invention, with the first fully synthetic plastic being created in 1907. However, its low production cost and versatility have made it one of the most widely used materials in modern times. The annual global production of plastic is estimated at 460 million metric tons, with over half of all plastic ever manufactured having been produced since the year 2000. This number is projected to double by 2050.
Plastic pollution is a global issue, with plastic waste being found in every ecosystem on the planet, from the Antarctic tundra to tropical coral reefs. In the marine environment, plastic pollution originates primarily from land runoff, paint shed from shipping, discarded fishing gear, and more. Plastic trash is carried to the sea by major rivers, which act as conveyor belts, picking up trash as they move downstream. Once caught in ocean currents, marine plastic pollution can spread worldwide.
The durability of plastics means that discarded items can remain in the environment for generations, with plastic pollution persisting in the environment for hundreds of years. Plastic pollution has been found to fragment into smaller pieces known as microplastics, which are plastic particles ranging in size from five millimeters to one nanometer, and nanoplastics, which are particles smaller than one micrometer. These microplastics and nanoplastics have been found in all sources of water, types of food, placentas of pregnant people, and human stool ever tested.
The environmental impacts of plastic pollution include littering, leaching of toxic components, and the contamination of ecosystems and the food chain. Plastic production also contributes to climate change, with annual emissions related to plastic production in the EU amounting to around 13.4 million tonnes of CO2.
The health impacts of plastic pollution are also significant. Microplastics can lead to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and even stroke. In addition, several chemicals used in plastic production are known to be carcinogenic and can cause developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune disorders.
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Plastic's history
The word "plastic" comes from the Ancient Greek "plastikos", meaning "capable of being shaped or moulded", which itself comes from plastos, meaning "moulded" or "formed". The word "plastic" originally meant "pliable and easily shaped".
The first recorded mention of natural plastic was by The Horners Company of London, which used horn and tortoiseshell as the predominant materials. In the 19th century, natural plastics such as horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber and shellac were commonly used. Animal horns, for instance, could be used to make medallions and cutlery when heated.
The first manufactured plastic was cellulose nitrate, patented in 1862 by Birmingham-born Alexander Parkes as Parkesine. It was a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell. However, it was John Wesley Hyatt, one of the people who took up and developed Parkesine, who invented the first synthetic polymer in 1869. By treating cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, Hyatt discovered a plastic that could be crafted into a variety of shapes and made to imitate natural substances. This discovery was revolutionary, as it meant human manufacturing was no longer constrained by the limits of nature.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, in that it contained no molecules found in nature. Baekeland had been searching for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator, to meet the needs of the rapidly electrifying United States. Bakelite was durable, heat resistant, and ideally suited for mechanical mass production.
During World War II, plastic production saw a tremendous surge as it became a strategic material for the war effort. Plastics were used in aircraft, vehicles, and various military applications, highlighting their versatility and adaptability. Nylon, invented in 1935, was used for materials like ropes, parachutes and helmet liners, while plexiglass, invented in 1933, was used as an alternative to glass in aeroplane windows.
In the post-war era, plastic products entered households in the form of everyday items like Tupperware and toys. The mid-20th century saw an explosion in plastic production, driven by the convenience and cost-effectiveness of this synthetic material.
Today, plastic is the most used type of material in the world, pervading all aspects of society. However, the success and dominance of plastics have also led to widespread environmental concerns due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems.
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$6.46
Plastic's composition
Plastic is a lightweight, durable, inexpensive and easy-to-modify material. It is made up of polymers, which are large organic molecules composed of repeating chains called monomers. These monomers are obtained from petroleum and fossil fuels, or from biomass in the case of bioplastics.
Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and, most commonly, crude oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery, which separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains, which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics.
Two main processes are used to produce plastics: polymerisation and polycondensation. Both require specific catalysts. In a polymerisation reactor, monomers such as ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymer chains. This process is known as condensation polymerisation, which involves joining two or more different monomers by the removal of small molecules such as water. It also requires a catalyst for the reaction to occur between adjacent monomers. This is known as step growth, because you may add an existing chain to another chain. Common examples of condensation polymers are polyester and nylon.
Plastics can also be produced from silicon atom (known as silicone) along with carbon; a common example is silicone breast implants or silicone hydrogel for optical lenses. Plastics are made up of polymeric resin often mixed with other substances called additives. These additives modify, optimise and improve the properties of the plastics, for example, improving flexibility or durability, or adding colour.
Plastics can be divided into two distinct categories based on their chemical composition. One category is plastics made up of polymers having only aliphatic (linear) carbon atoms in their backbone chains. The other category is made up of heterochain polymers, which contain atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur in their backbone chains, in addition to carbon. Most engineering plastics are composed of heterochain polymers.
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Plastic's production
The word "plastic" comes from the Ancient Greek πλαστικός (plastikos), meaning "capable of being shaped or moulded". Plastic materials are synthetic or semi-synthetic materials composed primarily of polymers. Their defining characteristic, plasticity, allows them to be moulded, extruded, or pressed into a diverse range of solid forms.
Plastics are usually derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used to make plastic. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains (chemical compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen), which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics.
There are two main processes used to produce plastics: polymerisation and polycondensation. Polymerisation is a process in the petroleum industry where light olefin gases (gasoline) such as ethylene, propylene, and butylene (monomers) are converted into higher molecular weight hydrocarbons (polymers). This happens when monomers are chemically bonded into chains. Polycondensation, on the other hand, involves joining two or more different monomers by the removal of small molecules such as water.
After the distillation step, the obtained long-chain hydrocarbons are converted into hydrocarbons that can be turned into many important chemicals, including plastics. Cracking is the main process that breaks down the mixture of complex hydrocarbons into simpler low relative molecular mass alkenes/alkanes through the use of high temperatures and pressure. There are two types of cracking: steam cracking, which uses high temperature and pressure to break the hydrocarbons' long chains without a catalyst, and catalytic cracking, which uses a catalyst to allow the process to occur at lower temperatures and pressures.
Once the plastic has been produced, it can be moulded into various shapes and forms. Plastics can be moulded using popular methods like extrusion or injection moulding. Extrusion involves forcing melted polymer through a die to create a shape, while injection moulding involves injecting molten polymer into a mould where it hardens into the desired shape.
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Plastic's alternatives
Plastic is a significant contributor to global waste, with only 14% of plastic packaging material collected for recycling, and over 30% of plastic packaging produced annually ending up in our oceans and environment. As a result, scientists and manufacturers are developing and exploring sustainable alternatives to plastic.
One of the biggest producers of plastic waste is packaging, including food wrappers, bottles, and shipping materials. Sustainable alternatives to plastic packaging include biodegradable algae-based packaging, with companies like B'zeos and Notpla using seaweed to develop products like edible drinking straws, condiment packets, cutlery, and plastic wrap. Another algae-based alternative is Mycelium, which can be used for foam replacements. However, scaling Mycelium is challenging due to its slower production process and weight.
Other eco-friendly alternatives to plastic packaging include natural fibers such as coconut fiber, hemp, husk, oat hulls, cotton burs, and jute. Paper and cardboard are also alternatives, but they require more energy to produce and are heavier to transport. Bamboo is another option, but it is mainly produced in Asia, requiring additional time and cost for importing. Additionally, the production technology of Bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer composites (BFRPC) is not yet mature enough for large-scale production.
Plant-based plastics, known as bioplastics, are another alternative. One type of bioplastic is PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates), produced by microorganisms through bacterial fermentation fueled by plant sources. PHA is compostable at home and degrades faster than other bioplastics like PLA (polylactic acid). Silicone is also considered an alternative to plastic, as it shares many physical characteristics with fossil fuel-derived plastics but is made from naturally occurring silica stone, water, and natural gas-derived methanol. It is strong, flexible, can withstand extreme temperatures, and does not leach toxic residues or microplastics.
While these alternatives offer promising solutions, simply replacing disposable plastic with another material may not significantly reduce the environmental burden. The least damaging approach is to reuse and refill packaging or opt for unpackaged options. Reusable bags, containers, cups, and cutlery are also recommended over single-use plastic items.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic is a synthetic or semi-synthetic material that is usually derived from petrochemicals or natural resources such as cellulose, starch, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil. It is a polymeric material that can be moulded or shaped, usually by applying heat and pressure.
Polymers are long chains of molecules (monomers) that are linked together to create a large molecule (polymer). This process gives plastic its strength and durability.
Plastic is lightweight, durable, flexible, chemically resistant, low-cost, and easy to produce. It can be moulded into almost any shape, texture, or colour, making it extremely versatile. Plastic has contributed to many modern advancements, including computers, cell phones, and medical devices.
Plastic is not biodegradable, which has led to a significant pollution problem, harming wildlife and the environment. It is also challenging to recycle, and most types are petroleum-based, making them non-renewable.
The first man-made plastic, Parkesine, was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855. However, the first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907. Since then, various advancements have been made, with different types of plastics being created and used in numerous applications.
