Chloe Zhang
The 20th and 21st centuries have been dubbed the Plastics Age due to the influence and ubiquity of plastic materials in modern society. Plastics are polymers, which are large molecules consisting of a chain of repeating smaller molecules (monomers). The process of combining these monomers through heat and pressure is called polymerization. The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who created celluloid by treating cellulose nitrate with camphor. This was a significant development as it allowed humans to create new materials beyond what nature could provide. However, the first fully synthetic and commercially successful plastic was Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First plastic | Parkesine, made by Alexander Parkes in 1862 |
| First plastic inventors | John Wesley Hyatt and his brother Isaiah |
| Plastic meaning | Pliable and easily shaped |
| Plastic type | Synthetic polymer |
| Plastic composition | Large molecules consisting of a chain of repeating smaller molecules (monomers) |
| Plastic moulding | Formed and moulded under heat and pressure |
| First fully synthetic plastic | Bakelite, created by Leo Baekeland in 1907 |
| Bakelite composition | Phenol-formaldehyde resin |
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What You'll Learn
Natural materials with plastic properties
The first plastic, Parkesine, was made by Alexander Parkes in 1862 using cellulose, a natural polymer that forms the cell walls of plants. Cellulose is a natural substance that has been used to create synthetic polymers. Other natural materials with plastic properties include shellac, rubber, collagen, and milk proteins.
Shellac, a resin secreted by the East Asian lac bug, was used to insulate electrical cables in the early 20th century. However, it was a labour-intensive process to harvest it by scraping hardened deposits from trees. Casein plastics were invented around 1897 by mixing milk protein with formaldehyde. Galalith and Erinoid are two early trade name examples of casein plastics.
In the nineteenth century, many materials with plastic properties were discovered as chemistry advanced during the Industrial Revolution. For instance, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. Natural rubber, derived from Mesoamerican rubber, was used for balls, bands, and figurines around 1600 BC. In the Middle Ages, cattle horns were treated and used as windows for lanterns.
In the early 20th century, bioplastics were developed from natural materials like shellac and cellulose. Today, bioplastics are gaining interest again as they can be produced from renewable biomass sources such as corn starch, rice starch, cellulose, and soy protein. Bioplastics offer a sustainable alternative to steel or fiberglass and have gained attention from the construction industry due to their potential for creating eco-friendly insulation materials.
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Chemical modification of natural materials
The development of plastics started with natural materials that exhibited plastic properties. Natural plastics such as horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber, shellac, and chewing gum have been used by humans since ancient times. The next step in the evolution of plastics involved the chemical modification of natural materials such as rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, and galalite.
One of the earliest examples of a plastic precursor was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855, known as Parkesine. It was made using cellulose, which is derived from plant cell walls. Parkesine could be heated and moulded into various shapes, and it retained its form when cooled. This discovery was a significant milestone, as it demonstrated that human manufacturing was not solely reliant on natural resources.
In 1868, John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid, another early plastic precursor. Hyatt treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, a process involving heat and pressure, to create a material that could be crafted into different shapes and imitate substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This invention was particularly notable as it addressed the growing shortage of ivory due to the popularity of billiards and the resulting strain on elephant populations.
Around 1897, the efforts to manufacture white chalkboards led to the invention of casein plastics, which were made by combining milk protein with formaldehyde. Arthur Smith received a British patent in 1899 for "phenol-formaldehyde resins" used in electrical insulation. However, it was Leo Hendrik Baekeland who improved the phenol-formaldehyde reaction techniques and invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic resin to achieve commercial success.
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Synthetic polymers
The first synthetic polymer was created in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate natural substances. This plastic, known as celluloid, was one of the world's first plastics and was revolutionary as it freed human manufacturing from the limits of nature.
Other early plastics were also made from natural materials, such as cellulose nitrate and milk protein mixed with formaldehyde. However, these were not wholly synthetic. It was not until 1907-1909 that Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic resin to become commercially successful. Baekeland combined phenol and formaldehyde under pressure and high temperature to create this versatile and readily mouldable plastic.
Some common synthetic polymers include nylon, used in textiles and fabrics; Teflon, found in non-stick pans; and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in pipes, construction, and clothing. Synthetic polymers have been widely adopted due to their versatility and low cost, replacing traditional materials such as steel, paper, glass, and wood.
However, the use of synthetic polymers has also led to environmental concerns due to their non-biodegradability and the use of petroleum, a fossil fuel. Bioplastics are being considered as an alternative, but they are currently more expensive than synthetic polymers.
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Cellulose and camphor
Cellulose is a natural polymer that forms the cell walls of plants. In the mid-19th century, it became a precursor to plastic when Alexander Parkes treated it with nitric acid to create Parkesine, the world's first plastic. This process involved transforming raw cellulose into nitrocellulose by exposing the cellulose fibres to an aqueous solution of nitric acid.
In 1868, John Wesley Hyatt created celluloid, another precursor to plastic, by applying heat and pressure to a mix of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Isaiah Hyatt, John's brother, dubbed the material "celluloid" in 1872. The Hyatts' creation of celluloid was inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for a substitute for ivory, which was becoming scarce due to overhunting. By treating cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, Hyatt created a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitated natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
The development of celluloid was a significant advancement, as it allowed human manufacturing to transcend the limitations of nature. This discovery revolutionised the creation of billiard balls, which had traditionally been made from ivory. However, celluloid production had its drawbacks, including the hazardous explosions caused by the highly flammable nitrating process.
While celluloid and Parkesine were early precursors to plastic, the first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907. Baekeland and his assistant Nathaniel Thurlow experimented with phenol-formaldehyde resins, ultimately creating the world's first completely synthetic plastic, Bakelite.
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Phenol and formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde resin (PF) is a synthetic polymer formed when phenol and formaldehyde react together. It is also known as phenolic resin, phenoplast, or phenolic plastic. PFs are thermosetting resins that are strong, versatile, stable, and heat-resistant. They are used in many industries, including automotive, construction, and woodworking. PFs were the first commercial synthetic resins, patented in 1899 by Arthur Smith for use as an electrical insulator. However, the first fully synthetic and commercially successful plastic was Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907 using phenol-formaldehyde.
The properties of phenolic resins vary depending on the ratio of phenol to formaldehyde and the type of catalyst used during the reaction. PF resins are formed by a step-growth polymerization reaction that can be acid- or base-catalysed. The reaction between phenol and formaldehyde creates a hydroxymethyl phenol that can react with other hydroxymethyl groups or free ortho or para sites to form methylene or ether bridges. The ratio of formaldehyde to phenol determines the degree of cross-linking in the polymer. When the molar ratio is one, each phenol can be linked via methylene bridges, enabling total cross-linking.
Novolacs (or novolaks) are phenol-formaldehyde resins with a formaldehyde-to-phenol molar ratio of less than one. They are produced using cresols (methylphenols) instead of phenol and are completed through acid-catalysis. Novolacs have multiple uses, including as a curing agent for epoxy resins, high-temperature resin, and binder for carbon brakes. Resoles, on the other hand, are phenol-formaldehyde resins with a formaldehyde-to-phenol ratio of greater than one and are made using a basic catalyst. Resoles are widely used as adhesives and in composite materials.
Phenol-formaldehyde resins are known for their amber colour, with colours ranging from yellow to dark brown. PF resins are valuable in many industrial processes due to their strength and durability. In the woodworking industry, for example, PF is used as a bonding agent between wood laminates. PF is also a thermal insulator, making it suitable for use in laboratory countertops and electrical insulation.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic is a word that was originally used to describe something that is "pliable and easily shaped". It is now used to refer to a category of materials called polymers, which are made of long chains of molecules.
Polymers are the chemical class of materials that make up all modern plastics. They are large molecules, consisting of a chain of repeating smaller molecules (monomers).
Plastic is made by using natural substances like cellulose, or more commonly, the plentiful carbon atoms provided by petroleum and other fossil fuels.
Natural materials that exhibited plastic properties were the precursors to modern synthetic plastics. These include shellac, chewing gum, rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen and galalite.
The first plastic, Parkesine, was made by Alexander Parkes in 1862 using cellulose.
