Chloe Zhang
Plastic is a generic name for a wide range of synthetic materials that come from natural, raw materials. The word plastic comes from the Greek word plastikos, meaning capable of being shaped or moulded. The first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term plastics. Most plastic is produced from natural gas, petroleum, and crude oil, but a growing minority is produced from renewable resources. Plastic is created through a polymerisation or polycondensation process, which involves the extraction and distillation of raw materials, followed by a chemical reaction that creates the building blocks of plastic.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First synthetic polymer invented | 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt |
| First fully synthetic plastic | Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland |
| Material | Synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymers |
| Polymer composition | Chains of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine atoms |
| Plasticity | The deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics |
| Sources | Natural gas, petroleum, crude oil, coal, plant crops, salt |
| Production process | Polymerisation or polycondensation |
| Additives | Starch powder, biodegradable additives |
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What You'll Learn
Crude oil and natural gas
Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used to create plastic. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains (chemical compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen), which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics. Naphtha is a volatile mixture of liquid hydrocarbons, obtained by the distillation of crude oil. It is decomposed at high temperatures in the presence of water vapour, splitting into light hydrocarbons known as olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and aromatics (including benzene, toluene, and xylene).
The small molecules produced from naphtha are linked together into long molecular chains called polymers. These polymers are then transformed into resins such as polyethylene and polypropylene through the addition of a catalyst. This process is known as polymerisation. The resins are melted and then cooled, after which they are chopped up into small plastic pellets known as nurdles. These particles are then transported to manufacturers who use heat and pressure to mould them into different types of plastic products.
Natural gas is also used in the production of plastics, with the extraction of either crude oil or natural gas being the first step in the process. The natural gas is then transformed into ethane and propane through a chemical reaction. These organic gases are considered the "building blocks" of plastic. The ethane and propane are then broken down into smaller molecules during the "cracking" phase, turning into ethylene and propylene, respectively. The rest of the process is the same as for plastics produced from crude oil.
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Biobased plastics
The word plastic comes from the Latin 'plasticus' and the Greek 'plastikos', both meaning "capable of being moulded". Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials composed primarily of polymers. The majority of plastics are derived from natural gas, petroleum, and other fossil fuels. However, with growing concerns about the environmental impact of plastics and limited oil reserves, there is a rising demand for biobased plastics.
As of 2018, bioplastics represented approximately 2% of global plastic output. With continued research, investment in bioplastic companies, and scrutiny on fossil-based plastics, bioplastics are becoming more prominent in certain markets. Examples of bioplastics include bio-PE, bio-PET, bio-propylene, bio-PP, and biobased nylons. Thermoplastic starch is the most widely used bioplastic, constituting about 50% of the bioplastics market.
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Synthetic plastics
The production of synthetic plastics begins with the extraction of these raw materials, which are then transformed through a chemical reaction that creates ethane and propane, the "building blocks" of plastic. This process usually takes place in refineries, where the ethane and propylene are broken down into smaller molecules during the "cracking" phase, turning into ethylene and propylene, respectively. Ethylene and propylene are the main raw materials for oil-based plastic, derived from naphtha, which is obtained through the distillation of crude oil.
The small molecules of ethylene and propylene are then linked together into long molecular chains called polymers, which form the main structure of plastics. This process is known as polymerization, where the addition of a catalyst transforms these elements into the resins polyethylene and polypropylene. These resins are then melted and cooled, ready to be chopped up into small plastic pellets, which can be transported to manufacturers who use heat and pressure to mold them into different types of plastic products.
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who treated cellulose derived from cotton fiber with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate natural substances. However, the world's first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term "plastics." Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and suitable for mechanical mass production, shaping the course of modern plastics.
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Ancient uses of natural plastic
The word plastic comes from the Latin word 'plasticus', meaning "capable of moulding", and the Ancient Greek word 'plastikos', meaning "capable of being shaped or moulded". The first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term "plastics".
However, natural plastics have been used since ancient times. For instance, the Olmecs in Mexico played with balls made of rubber, a natural polymer, over a millennium before Christ. In the 18th century, the first European, French explorer Charles-Marie de La Condamine, discovered the rubber tree in the Amazon basin. Medieval craftsmen also made lantern windows out of translucent slices of animal horn, which is made of keratin—a mixed carbon-nitrogen polymer.
Animal horns, when heated, were also used to make a variety of products, from medallions to cutlery. Horn was one of the most commonly used natural plastics, with the comb-making industry being one of its biggest applications in the 19th century. Similarly, animal-derived materials such as ivory and turtle shells were used to make piano keys, billiard balls, and combs. However, by the middle of the 19th century, these materials had become increasingly scarce due to industrialised goods production.
Other natural plastics used in ancient times include amber, shellac, and gutta-percha, a cousin of rubber. Gutta-percha was used to coat the first submarine cables for telecommunications in 1851.
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Plastic's environmental impact
Plastic pollution has become one of the most pressing environmental issues, due to the overwhelming rise in the production of disposable plastic products. Plastic pollution is most evident in developing Asian and African nations, where garbage collection systems are often inefficient or non-existent. However, countries in the developed world, especially those with low recycling rates, also struggle to properly collect discarded plastics.
Plastic pollution affects all land, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. It is a major driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and contributes to climate change. Plastic waste flows from land into the oceans, with around 8 million tons of plastic waste escaping into the oceans from coastal nations each year. Marine plastic pollution can then be carried by ocean currents around the world. Plastic pollution puts marine species at a higher risk of ingesting plastic, suffocating, or becoming entangled in plastic waste. Research indicates that more than 1500 species in marine and terrestrial environments are known to ingest plastics.
Microplastics (pieces of plastic less than 5mm long) and nanoplastics (pieces smaller than 1mm) have been found in every ecosystem on the planet, from the Antarctic tundra to tropical coral reefs. They have also been found in all sources of water, types of food, placentas of pregnant people, and human stool ever tested. The ingestion and/or inhalation of microplastics shedding from products and hazardous additives leaching out of plastic products can severely affect human health. Microplastics have been linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and even strokes.
Plastic production also contributes to climate change. Annual emissions related to plastic production in the EU amount to around 13.4 million tonnes of CO2, or about 20% of the chemicals industry's emissions in the European Union. Global efforts are being made to reduce plastic pollution, with the United Nations negotiating a global treaty, and the EU implementing its plastics strategy as part of the circular economy action plan.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastics are made from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil.
Bio-based plastics are made from renewable products such as carbohydrates, starch, vegetable fats and oils, bacteria, and other biological substances.
Synthetic plastics are derived from the processing of crude oil, natural gas, or coal.
The process of making plastics involves the extraction of raw materials, their transformation into ethane and propane through a chemical reaction, and the breaking down of these gases into smaller molecules of ethylene and propylene, which are then moulded into various shapes.
