Chloe Zhang
Humans have been using naturally derived plastics for a long time. For instance, medieval craftsmen made lantern windows out of translucent slices of animal horn, and the Olmecs in Mexico played with balls made of natural rubber around 1600 BC. However, the wide range of completely synthetic materials that we would recognise as modern plastics started to be developed around 100 years ago. One of the earliest examples was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855, who named his invention Parkesine. Another key breakthrough came in 1907, when Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland created Bakelite, the first real synthetic, mass-produced plastic. Since Baekeland’s creation, many new plastics have been realised and developed, offering a huge range of desirable properties, and you will find them in every home, office, factory and vehicle.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin of the word 'plastic' | Derived from the word 'pliable' and 'easily shaped' |
| First use of naturally derived plastics | 1600 BC by Mesoamericans |
| First synthetic plastics | Invented around 100 years ago, with Bakelite being the first fully synthetic plastic invented in 1907 |
| Use of plastics in the modern world | Packaging, construction, consumer goods, transportation, electronics, optics, medicine, textiles, agriculture, etc. |
| Environmental impact | Plastic debris in oceans was first observed in the 1960s, with 8-12 million tons of plastic entering oceans annually |
| Efforts to reduce environmental impact | Lowering plastic production and use, implementing waste and recycling policies, and developing alternatives to plastics |
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What You'll Learn
Plastic's origins in natural materials
The word "plastic" originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". Plastics are synthetic or semisynthetic materials composed primarily of polymers, which are long chains of molecules. Polymers are abundant in nature. Cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, is a common natural polymer. Wood is about half cellulose, which gives it stiffness and durability.
Humans have used naturally derived plastics for thousands of years. In the Middle Ages, translucent slices of animal horn, which is made of the polymer keratin, were used to make lantern windows. The Olmecs in Mexico played with balls made of natural rubber, another type of polymer, around 1600 BC. In 1862, the British inventor Alexander Parkes displayed an early plastic called Parkesine at the International Exhibition in London. Many early examples of Parkesine products, such as printers' moulds, cutlery handles, buttons, and combs, can be found today at London's Science Museum.
In 1869, John Wesley Hyatt created the first synthetic polymer, inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for a substitute for ivory, which was in high demand due to the growing popularity of billiards. Hyatt treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This discovery was revolutionary, as it freed human manufacturing from the limits of nature.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, as he sought a substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator. Bakelite was durable, heat resistant, and suitable for mechanical mass production. It could be shaped or moulded into almost anything, providing endless possibilities. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber.
Today, most plastics are produced from natural gas and petroleum, but a growing minority are produced from renewable resources. The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials to the chemical modification of those materials and, finally, to completely synthetic plastics.
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Vulcanisation and early semi-synthetic plastics
The history of plastic goes back to ancient times, with the use of natural polymers such as rubber and keratin. In ancient Mesoamerican cultures, rubber was cured using sulfur-rich plant juices, an early form of vulcanisation. Vulcanisation is a critical process in the rubber industry that enhances the mechanical properties and durability of rubber materials. It involves the cross-linking of rubber molecules using sulfur or sulfur-containing compounds, which increases elasticity while decreasing plasticity.
The process of vulcanisation was discovered in the mid-1800s by Charles Goodyear, who accidentally dropped a mixture of rubber and sulfur into a hot frying pan, only to find that instead of melting, the rubber became harder as he increased the heat. Goodyear's discovery made possible the rubber tyre for bicycles and later motor cars. In 1843, British inventor Thomas Hancock patented the vulcanisation of rubber using sulfur, just weeks before Goodyear in the US. Hancock also collaborated with Charles Mackintosh to make water-resistant clothing.
The development of plastics accelerated with these discoveries, and soon fully synthetic plastics were being created. In 1907, Belgian-born American Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic derived from fossil fuels. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and ideally suited for mechanical mass production. It could be shaped or moulded into almost anything, providing endless possibilities for consumer goods. The creation of Bakelite led major chemical companies to invest in the research and development of new polymers, leading to the creation of now-familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene, polyester, and nylon.
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The first synthetic plastics
The development of plastics started with the use of natural materials with intrinsic plastic properties, such as shellac and chewing gum. Over time, humans learned how to chemically modify these materials to create new semi-synthetic materials, such as rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, and galalite.
In the 19th century, as chemistry progressed during the Industrial Revolution, many new materials were discovered and the development of plastics accelerated. One of the earliest examples of a manufactured plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes, who patented Parkesine in 1862. Parkesine was a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell, made from cellulose nitrate—cotton fibres dissolved in nitric and sulphuric acids and then mixed with vegetable oil. This invention marked the beginning of the transition from natural materials to semi-synthetic and, eventually, fully synthetic plastics.
In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanized rubber, the first semi-synthetic resin, which could be hardened and made more durable using sulphur. This discovery led to the creation of the rubber tyre for bicycles and later motor cars. However, it was Baekeland's invention of Bakelite that truly revolutionized the plastics industry. Bakelite was not only a good electrical insulator but also durable, heat resistant, and suitable for mechanical mass production. The success of Bakelite inspired the development of new polymers, including polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene, and nylon.
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World War II's role in plastic's popularity
The popularity of plastics today can be directly attributed to World War II. During the war, there was a great need for easy-to-produce, durable, lightweight, and inexpensive supplies, and plastics fit the bill perfectly. The United States invested heavily in plastics, giving out over a billion dollars to private companies to rapidly expand the industry. Plastic production in the United States increased by 300% during the war, and this surge continued even after it ended.
The expansion of the plastics industry during World War II was driven by the need to preserve scarce natural resources and find synthetic alternatives. Plastics provided those substitutes, with nylon being used for parachutes, ropes, body armor, and helmet liners, and plexiglass providing an alternative to glass for aircraft windows. The versatility of plastics was demonstrated during the war, and they became an essential material for victory alongside military success.
After World War II, there was initially some skepticism about plastic products due to their association with cheap, low-quality wartime materials. However, companies like Tupperware zealously promoted their products, associating them with leisure and a casual lifestyle. Manufacturers collaborated with women's magazines like "Good Housekeeping" and "House Beautiful" to showcase plastic home goods and create demand.
The post-war period was marked by consumerism, as Americans who had endured the Great Depression and the war were ready to spend again. This drove the mass consumer goods market, with new plastic products like Tupperware, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyethylene becoming popular. By the 1960s and 1970s, plastics had become ubiquitous, with items that were once luxury goods now accessible to people worldwide due to affordable plastic alternatives.
The development of plastics during World War II and their subsequent popularity played a significant role in shaping the modern world, impacting various industries and changing the way we live.
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Plastic's environmental impact
The first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented in 1907. It was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mass production. Since then, plastics have become integral to modern life, from packaging materials to electronics, construction, and healthcare. However, their widespread use has led to significant environmental concerns.
Plastics are derived from fossil fuels, and their production contributes to climate change and air emissions. The infrastructure and processes involved in extracting and refining the raw materials for plastics release hundreds of toxins, damaging sensory organs, affecting bodily systems, and impairing organs.
One of the most pressing issues with plastics is their persistence in the environment. Plastics can take between 100 to 1,000 years or more to decompose, fragmenting into microplastics and nanoplastics that penetrate every ecosystem on the planet. These tiny plastic particles contaminate the air, water, and food, entering the bodies of animals and humans. The ingestion or inhalation of microplastics can lead to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and even stroke.
Microplastics, ranging in size from 1 μm to 5 mm, and nanoplastics, smaller than 1 μm, have been found in all sources of water, types of food, placentas of pregnant people, and human stool ever tested. They originate from various sources, including cosmetics, clothing, construction materials, food packaging, and industrial processes.
The durability of plastics contributes to littering, as discarded items remain in the environment for generations. Plastic pollution poses a particular threat to marine life, with 85% of marine litter from land-based sources being plastic. Marine species are at higher risk of ingesting plastic, suffocating, or becoming entangled. Over 1,500 species in marine and terrestrial environments are known to ingest plastics.
Efforts to minimize the environmental impact of plastics include reducing plastic production and use, implementing waste and recycling policies, and developing alternatives such as sustainable packaging and bio-based plastics. However, the recycling rates for plastics remain low, with only about 9% of all plastics ever produced being recycled. As global plastic consumption continues to accelerate, addressing these environmental challenges becomes increasingly crucial.
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Frequently asked questions
The use of plastic in goods originated in the 19th century, with the discovery of vulcanized rubber by Charles Goodyear in 1839.
The first plastic good was a rubber tyre for bicycles, made possible by Goodyear's discovery.
The first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented in 1907 by Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland.
The first manufactured plastic was Parkesine, patented in 1862 by Birmingham-born artisan-cum-chemist Alexander Parkes.
The use of plastic became widespread during World War II due to the high demand for easy-to-produce, durable supplies. Marketing campaigns in the late 1940s also helped to popularize plastic home goods. The emergence of single-use plastics and their growing popularity further contributed to the widespread use of plastic.
