Maya Ellison
Plastic particles, or microplastics, are everywhere. They are found in the air, drinking water, oceans, lakes, rivers, seas, soil, street dust, food, and even in the human body. They are a product of plastic breaking down over time, becoming smaller than a sesame seed, and can be harmful to organisms that ingest them. Microplastics are also found in the form of microbeads, which are intentionally designed to be small and are used in health and beauty products. These microbeads can pass through water filtration systems and end up in the ocean, posing a threat to aquatic life. While the health effects of microplastics on humans are still unknown, they have been linked to poor health outcomes in a few studies.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Bottled water | 240,000 plastic particles per litre |
| Tap water | Not yet known |
| Air | Not yet known |
| Biological tissues | Not yet known |
| Sewage | 80-90% of plastic particles from sewage, such as garment fibres, persist in sludge |
| Soil | One-third of all plastic waste ends up in soil |
| Oceans | 1.5 million trillion microfibers in 2019 |
| Arctic Ocean | 1,310 particles/litre on the surface |
| Human body | Found in blood, lungs, gut, feces, placenta, testes |
| Infant feeding bottles | 14,600 to 4,550,000 particles per capita per day |
| Single-use plastic products | Trillions of microplastic-nanoparticles per litre |
| Face masks | A single mask can release up to 173,000 fibres per day |
| Cosmetics | Microbeads found in exfoliating skincare gels |
| Food | Found in the guts of fish and shellfish |
| Clothing | 700,000 microscopic plastic fibres released per washing machine cycle |
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What You'll Learn
Bottled water
Plastic particles have been found in bottled water, with studies showing that a litre of bottled water can contain anywhere from 110,000 to 370,000 plastic fragments, the vast majority of which are nanoplastics.
Nanoplastics are particles smaller than 1 micrometer, which is 1 millionth of a metre or 1/25,000th of an inch. They are many times smaller than a speck of dust and cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are formed when plastics break down into smaller and smaller bits.
The presence of nanoplastics in bottled water is concerning because they can be consumed by humans and other creatures, with unknown potential health and ecosystem effects. While research on the health impacts of consuming nanoplastics is still ongoing, studies conducted on animals and cells in a lab suggest that nanoplastics can impact a variety of organs and systems throughout the body. Exposure to high quantities of nanoplastics may affect a cell's immune function and cause inflammation.
The sources of nanoplastics in bottled water can vary. One study suggested that many particles enter the water when the bottle is repeatedly opened or closed, causing tiny bits to abrade. Another source could be the plastic filters used to purify the water before bottling.
To reduce the consumption of nanoplastics from bottled water, individuals can invest in a good-quality reusable bottle (preferably glass or stainless steel) and fill it with filtered tap water.
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Oceans and lakes
Plastic is the most prevalent type of marine debris found in our oceans and lakes. Plastics in the ocean break up into very small particles, called "microplastics", which are less than 5mm in length. These microplastics can come from larger plastic pieces that have broken apart, resin pellets used in manufacturing, or microbeads found in health and beauty products. They can easily pass through water filtration systems and end up in the ocean and lakes, posing a potential threat to aquatic life.
Research is being conducted on the impact of microplastics, but there is still much unknown. Marine organisms at the base of the food chain, such as plankton and fish larvae, are known to consume microplastics, and filter-feeding animals, such as oysters and scallops, ingest these particles as well. Scientists are studying the potential health risks to marine life and humans by determining the most toxic types and the amounts ingested by marine animals. Plastics may contain toxic chemicals added during manufacturing, such as phthalates and bisphenol A, or they can become toxic by absorbing harmful chemicals from the environment, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
A 2015 study estimated that about eight million tons of plastics enter the world's oceans each year, but only one per cent is found floating on the surface. This suggests that most plastics in the ocean are likely microplastics suspended in the water or buried in sediments.
Lakes and reservoirs, especially those in densely populated and urbanized areas, are also vulnerable to plastic contamination. A recent international survey of 38 lakes found plastic debris in all of them, with Italy's Lugano and Maggiore lakes being the most polluted. The density of plastic waste in lakes can be higher than in oceanic garbage patches, and even lakes in pristine areas contain significant debris.
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Soil
Plastic particles are increasingly being found in soil, with one study estimating that a third of all plastic waste ends up in soils or freshwater. This is a global problem, affecting regions from Asia to North America to Africa.
Plastic waste in the soil is largely the result of intensive agriculture. Farmers are increasingly reliant on agricultural plastics, such as plastic mulch films, which are used around plants to keep the soil moist, and plastic-encapsulated, slow-release fertilizers. Other plastic products include films for greenhouses and silage, shade and protection nets, and drip irrigation. These plastics eventually break down into particles smaller than 5mm, known as microplastics, and then further into nanoparticles, which are less than 0.1 micrometres in size.
The use of plastic mulch has grown significantly, with its global usage increasing by 5-10% every year. In 2010, around 4270km2 of agricultural land in Europe—an area about two and a half times the size of Greater London—was covered in plastic mulch. Greenhouse farming is another source of microplastics, with large amounts of plastic waste generated due to the limited lifespan of plastic film.
The presence of plastic in the soil has detrimental effects on the soil ecosystem, including plants and small animals, and consequently on the food we eat. Studies have shown that small plastic particles can enter plants and delay seed germination, stunt growth, inhibit photosynthesis, disrupt nutrient metabolism and cause oxidative damage. Plastic particles can also release harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil, which can then seep into groundwater, other water sources, and the ecosystem, causing harmful effects on the species that drink the water.
There is also evidence that plastic particles can be ingested by soil invertebrates and vertebrates, and that they may have toxic effects on organisms. For example, a study by the Leibnitz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries found that nanoplastics can have behaviour-changing effects in fish. Furthermore, the surfaces of plastic fragments may carry disease-causing organisms and act as a vector for diseases in the environment.
While the impact of plastic on living organisms is better understood, less is known about how plastic accumulates in soils, its potential ecological impacts, and its interaction with the soil environment. More research is needed to fully understand the long-term effects of plastic in the soil.
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Human bodies
Plastic particles, or microplastics, have been found in almost every part of the human body, including the blood, saliva, liver, kidneys, placenta, testicles, hearts, and brains. They enter the body through ingestion or inhalation, and can also be passed from mother to fetus through the placenta and breast milk.
A recent study found that microplastics can attach to the outer membranes of red blood cells, potentially impairing their ability to transport oxygen. They have also been found in the placentas of pregnant women, and in pregnant rats, they pass rapidly through the lungs into the hearts, brains, and other organs of the fetuses.
Research in mice has shown that exposure to microplastics can cause inflammation, negatively impact learning and memory, and reduce sperm quality and testosterone levels. However, some of these studies used concentrations that may not be relevant to real-world scenarios. The impact of microplastics on human health is still largely unknown, but there is growing concern among researchers.
Microplastics have been detected in the air, food, and water that humans consume, and their presence in the environment is widespread. They are found in cosmetics, household dust, fabrics, cleaning products, seafood, produce, and more. As plastic waste continues to proliferate, the potential risks to human health may also increase.
While the full extent of the harm caused by microplastics is not yet clear, there is a growing body of research investigating their impact on human health and the environment.
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Air
Plastic pollution is not limited to the world's oceans and waterways. Microplastics, defined as plastic particles less than 5mm in diameter, are present in the air we breathe. They are often so small that they are invisible to the human eye, but they can be transported over thousands of kilometres by wind currents, reaching remote parts of the Earth in a matter of days.
Studies have found airborne microplastic concentrations ranging from 0.01 particles per cubic meter in parts of the Pacific Ocean to several thousand particles per cubic meter in cities like London and Beijing. Indoor concentrations of microplastics can be even higher, with one study finding up to 1583 ± 1181 microplastics/m3 indoors. These particles can enter buildings and be inhaled, with potential health consequences. Inhalation is a major contributor to human intake of microplastics, and it is estimated that humans can inhale up to 22,000,000 microplastics annually.
The presence of microplastics in the atmosphere has raised concerns about their potential impact on cloud formation and climate change. Microplastics have been found to act as ice-nucleating particles (INPs) and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), which can affect cloud formation processes. They can also scatter or absorb sunlight, potentially altering the Earth's radiation balance and influencing temperature, rainfall, and climate change. While the current concentration of microplastics in the atmosphere is low, with a small influence on the global climate, it is expected to increase in the future with the projected rise in plastic waste.
The sources of airborne microplastics are varied and include the breakdown of larger plastic items, industrial processes, packaging materials, cosmetics, and clothing. Primary microplastics are intentionally produced at a microscale for specific uses, such as agrochemicals or pharmaceuticals. Secondary microplastics result from the mechanical, chemical, and physical fragmentation of larger plastics, including "legacy" plastics disposed of decades ago. All stages of the plastics lifecycle emit microplastics, and without serious efforts to reduce plastic production and improve waste management, the abundance of airborne microplastics is likely to increase.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic particles, especially microplastics, are found in the ocean, lakes, rivers, and seas. They are also found in the air, bottled water, tap water, food, soil, street dust, and even in remote areas.
Plastic particles have been found in human blood, lungs, gut, feces, breast milk, placenta, testes, hearts, livers, kidneys, and reproductive tissues.
Plastic particles can be found in household dust, as well as in laundry wastewater. They can also be tracked into the home via shoes.
