Chloe Zhang
Plastic is a synthetic, organic polymer made from fossil fuels, such as gas and petroleum. Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and, most commonly, crude oil. Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used to create plastic. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called fractions. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics. Two main processes are used to produce plastics – polymerisation and polycondensation. While most plastics are produced from natural gas and petroleum, a growing minority are produced from renewable resources like polylactic acid. Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic were estimated to have been made, with more than half produced since 2004. In 2023 alone, over 400 million metric tons of plastic were produced worldwide. If global trends continue, annual global plastic production will exceed 1.3 billion tons by 2060.
The plastic waste crisis has become a global issue, with plastic pollution affecting all land, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. It is a major driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and contributes to climate change. Asia is the world's most significant contributor to plastic emissions, with the Philippines, India, and Malaysia being the top three emitting countries. The mismanagement of plastic waste in low-to-middle-income countries is a significant factor in plastic emissions, with waste often being dumped outside of landfills or left in open, leaking landfills. While many countries have implemented measures to tackle plastic pollution, such as bans on certain single-use plastics, a global plastics treaty is essential to address this transboundary issue effectively.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Plastic production sources | Crude oil, natural gas, petroleum, and renewable resources like polylactic acid |
| Plastic production process | Distillation, polymerization, and polycondensation |
| Global plastic production (estimated) | 9.2 billion metric tons between 1950 and 2017 |
| Annual global plastic production (estimated) | Over 400 million metric tons |
| Annual global plastic production (projected) | Over 1.3 billion tons by 2060 |
| Plastic waste management methods | Incineration, recycling, landfills |
| Plastic waste in the ocean | Around 0.5% of global plastic waste |
| Ocean plastic emissions by region | Asia: 81%, Africa: 8%, South America: 5.5%, North America: 4.5%, Europe and Oceania: <1% |
| Top ocean plastic-emitting countries | Philippines, India, China, Brazil, Nigeria |
| Primary sources of marine plastic pollution | Land runoff, paint shed from shipping, discarded fishing gear |
| Microplastics sources | Synthetic textiles, tyres, plastic breakdown |
| Impact of plastic pollution | Biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, climate change, economic impacts |
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What You'll Learn
Plastic from crude oil and natural gas
Plastic is a generic name for a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials derived from natural, raw materials. Most plastic is produced from natural gas and petroleum, although a growing minority is produced from renewable resources.
The largest reserves of crude oil are found in Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. The thick, black oil is extracted from underground reserves using drills and pumps. It is then transported to refineries through pipelines. At the refinery, the oil is heated to 600-750 degrees Fahrenheit and distilled. This process, called fractional distillation, breaks the oil into smaller components called fractions. One of these, naphtha, is a crucial compound for making plastic.
Natural gas is another primary source of plastic. It undergoes a process called steam cracking to become plastic polymers. The cracking phase breaks down ethane and propane into smaller molecules called monomers, which are the basic building blocks of polymers. These monomers are then combined to form a polymer chain. The polymer chains are long, flexible chains of chemical compounds that represent the main structure of plastics.
The production of plastic from crude oil and natural gas involves a complex, man-made process. The dominance of plastics since the early 20th century has had major benefits for mankind, ranging from medical devices to lightweight construction materials. However, plastic's slow decomposition rate has also led to widespread environmental concerns.
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Plastic waste management
The first step in effective plastic waste management is reducing plastic waste generation. This involves promoting awareness about the routine management of plastic products and encouraging the use of alternative materials or reusable options. However, given the existing plastic waste, proper waste management and disposal are crucial to mitigating the plastic crisis.
Currently, plastic waste management varies across different regions. In developed economies, plastic waste is primarily incinerated, recycled, or sent to well-managed landfills. Recycling, in particular, is essential as it reduces the amount of energy and resources consumed in the manufacturing process. However, the global recycling rate for plastics is low, estimated at less than 10%.
In low-to-middle-income countries, waste management infrastructure is often inadequate. Waste is sometimes dumped outside landfills, and existing landfills may be open, leading to waste leakage into the surrounding environment. This results in higher rates of mismanaged waste, with plastic ending up in uncontrolled sites or the environment. According to the UNEP Global Waste Management Outlook, 3 billion people lack access to controlled disposal services for solid waste, contributing to the plastic pollution crisis.
To address these issues, international cooperation and guidelines are essential. The Basel Convention provides guidance for better management of plastic waste, and in 2023, parties to the convention adopted technical guidelines on environmentally sound management of plastic waste. Additionally, regional initiatives, such as the Geneva Environment Network's Plastics and the Environment Series, offer resources and news on plastic waste management, highlighting the global efforts to tackle this pressing issue.
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Plastic in the ocean
Land-based sources account for the majority (80%) of marine debris. This includes litter, construction trash, debris from ports, marinas, and industrial facilities, and waste blown out of garbage containers or trucks. Mismanaged waste in low-to-middle-income countries is a significant contributor to this, with per capita mismanaged waste in the Philippines being 100 times higher than in the UK. Additionally, single-use plastic packaging and disposable products are major contributors, as they are designed to be quickly discarded and often end up in the ocean if not properly disposed of or managed.
Ocean-based sources make up the remaining 20% of marine debris. This includes overboard discharges from ships and discarded fishing gear. Fishing nets, in particular, are a significant problem, as they can break down into microplastics that absorb harmful pollutants and release them into the ocean. These microplastics are then ingested by marine life, causing intestinal injuries and death, and transferring plastic up the food chain to bigger fish, marine mammals, and even human seafood eaters.
The impact of plastic pollution in the ocean is widespread and devastating. It is estimated that marine plastic pollution has impacted at least 267 species worldwide, including sea turtles, seabirds, and marine mammals. These animals often mistake plastic for food or become entangled in it, leading to injury and death. The problem is growing, with the amount of plastic in the ocean increasing and the production of plastic projected to rise in the coming years.
To address this crisis, a multi-pronged approach is necessary. This includes reducing plastic use, particularly single-use plastics, reusing and recycling plastic items, and participating in cleanup efforts to remove plastic from the ocean and prevent further pollution. It is crucial to address the root causes of plastic pollution and improve waste management practices to protect marine life and ecosystems from the devastating effects of plastic in the ocean.
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Plastic in the environment
Plastic is a human-made material derived mainly from petroleum that can be moulded, cast, spun, or applied as a coating. It is a polymeric material, meaning its molecules are long chains made up of a series of interconnected links. Plastic is not biodegradable and, instead of breaking down, forms smaller pieces called microplastics, which can last on Earth for centuries.
The durability of plastics means that discarded items remain in the environment for generations. Plastic waste affects many areas of the natural environment, especially the oceans and their ecosystems. Marine plastic pollution, for example, creates garbage patches. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic, with plastic lines, ropes, and fishing nets making up 52% of its plastic mass.
The ingestion of plastics by marine species is widespread in European seas. For example, 93% of fulmar birds in the North-East Atlantic Ocean had ingested plastic, and 85% of turtles in the Mediterranean Sea had ingested litter. Microplastics are also ingested by marine life, and approximately 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles and clothing, particularly the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing during the washing process.
The environmental impacts of discarded plastics include littering, the leaching of toxic components, and the contamination of ecosystems and the food chain with microplastics, which can eventually end up in humans with unknown health effects. Studies have found that plastic products and their waste can be toxic to humans and can enter and harm the body through food, water, and skin contact.
The average annual plastic consumption in Western Europe is around 150kg per person, more than twice the global average of 60kg. Global consumption of plastic is accelerating, and global plastic production is expected to increase in the coming decades.
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Plastic production
The word plastic comes from the Greek word "plastikos", meaning "to mold or shape". Plastics are synthetic materials that come from natural, raw materials such as crude oil and natural gas. Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds and needs to be processed before it can be used. The production of plastics begins with the distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery. This separates the heavy crude oil into groups of lighter components, called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains (chemical compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen), which differ in terms of the size and structure of their molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial compound for the production of plastics.
Two main processes are used to produce plastics – polymerisation and polycondensation – and they both require specific catalysts. In a polymerisation reactor, monomers such as ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymer chains. The polymer chains are long flexible chains of chemical compounds and they represent the main structure of plastics. In this “polymerisation” process, the two elements ethylene and propylene are transformed into the resins polyethylene and polypropylene thanks to the addition of a catalyst.
The success and dominance of plastics since the early 20th century have had major benefits for mankind, ranging from medical devices to light-weight construction materials. However, plastics are also the basis of widespread environmental concerns due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, with only less than 10% recycled. The world produces around 350 million tonnes of plastic waste each year, with an estimated 1 to 2 million tonnes ending up in the oceans annually. 81% of ocean plastics are emitted from Asia, with the Philippines accounting for more than one-third of plastic inputs.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic is derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and crude oil.
Synthetic plastic is derived from crude oil, natural gas, or coal.
Man-made plastic.
Man-made plastic is when raw materials such as crude oil or natural gas are extracted from oceans or rock formations and manipulated to create plastic.
Bioplastics, which are made from plant crops, and biobased plastic, which comes from renewable products such as carbohydrates, starch, vegetable fats, oils, bacteria, and other biological substances.
