Chloe Zhang
Plasticity is a core concept in developmental psychology, referring to the capacity of a species or individual to modify their behaviour and traits in response to their environment. This can be observed in the ability of a peppered moth caterpillar to change its coloration to match its surroundings, or in the way that an embryo or larva adjusts its traits based on its environment. Developmental plasticity specifically refers to changes in neural connections during growth, influenced by environmental interactions and learning. Factors such as age, environment, and experience influence the extent of plasticity, with enriched environments enhancing cognitive function. Phenotypic plasticity, which is reversible in adulthood, involves the ability of an organism to change its physical traits, behaviour, or physiology in response to its environment.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | "Plasticity is the relative flexibility, or capacity to modify behavior to fit contextual demands, shown by a species (or individual) at its most advanced level of development." |
| Neural connections | Neurons and synapses adapt during development |
| Phenotypic plasticity | Organisms can change their physical traits, behavior, or physiology in response to environmental conditions |
| Brain plasticity | Brain areas can reorganize to compensate for lost functions |
| Age | Factors such as age influence the extent of plasticity |
| Environment | Factors such as environment influence the extent of plasticity |
| Genes | Genes influence plasticity |
| Experience | Factors such as experience influence the extent of plasticity |
| Epigenetics | Environmental signals act upon the genome |
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What You'll Learn
Phenotypic plasticity
The special case when differences in the environment induce distinct phenotypes is called polyphenism. Phenotypic plasticity is generally more significant for immobile organisms like plants, as they cannot move away from unfavourable environmental conditions. However, it can also be observed in mobile organisms like animals, which may exhibit phenotypic plasticity in addition to their ability to relocate.
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Neural plasticity
The concept of neural plasticity was first explored in 1793 by Italian anatomist Michele Vincenzo Malacarne, who discovered that the cerebellums of trained animals were larger than those of untrained animals. However, these findings were forgotten, and it was not until the early 1900s that the term "neuronal plasticity" was coined by pioneering neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal to describe non-pathological changes in the structure of adult brains. Cajal's work challenged the view of the brain as a non-renewable organ, demonstrating degeneration and regeneration in the adult brain. Despite this, the idea of neural plasticity was not widely accepted until later discoveries provided further evidence.
In 1923, Karl Lashley conducted experiments on rhesus monkeys that revealed changes in neuronal pathways, providing further support for neural plasticity. Subsequently, in 1943, McCulloch and Pitts proposed the concept of the artificial neuron, introducing the idea of Hebbian learning. These advancements led to a growing understanding of the brain's capacity for modification and reorganisation, which is now recognised as a key component of neural development and the normal functioning of the nervous system.
The extent of neural plasticity is influenced by factors such as age, environment, and experience. Enriched environments, for example, have been shown to enhance cognitive function. While neural plasticity allows for continuous learning and memory formation, the changes it brings about can be beneficial, neutral, or negative, with the potential for pathological consequences in some cases.
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Synaptic plasticity
The underlying principle of synaptic plasticity is that synapses undergo an activity-dependent and selective strengthening or weakening, which allows new information to be stored. Synaptic plasticity is influenced by factors such as the threshold of the presynaptic stimulus and the relative concentrations of neurotransmitter molecules. It is also regulated by biochemical interactions at the microdomain level, such as the exocytosis of AMPA receptors, which are spatially regulated by the t-SNARE STX4.
Additionally, synaptic plasticity can contribute to the development of neural circuitry. Impairments in synaptic plasticity mechanisms have been linked to several prominent neuropsychiatric disorders, highlighting the importance of understanding the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying this process.
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Homeostatic plasticity
Homeostatic presynaptic plasticity refers to the ability of neurons to regulate neurotransmitter release at presynaptic terminals, ensuring a steady range of brain activity. This process involves various mechanisms, such as quantal size adjustment, differential expression of presynaptic proteins, and modification of vesicle recycling. Homeostatic postsynaptic plasticity, on the other hand, is crucial for maintaining consistent levels of synaptic activity in neurons formed at specific synapses in the brain. It involves changes in the expression and location of neurotransmitter receptors, impacting synaptic transmission.
Homeostatic intrinsic plasticity refers to the ability of neurons to change their intrinsic electrical characteristics in response to changes in synaptic or network activity. This process involves alterations in the excitability or firing characteristics of individual neurons, rather than primarily adjusting synaptic strength. Overall, homeostatic plasticity plays a critical role in maintaining neural stability and allowing the brain to adapt to changing conditions without compromising neuronal activity.
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Learning-induced plasticity
In the cerebellum, learning-induced plasticity involves changes in the synaptic circuitry of the cerebellar cortex, specifically the parallel fibre-Purkinje cell synapses. These synapses exhibit structural plasticity, with the formation and elimination of synapses occurring in response to learning. For example, acrobatic motor training in rats leads to an increase in spine density in the prefrontal cortex, reflecting the formation of new synapses and enhanced motor learning. Similarly, musical training in children results in behavioural improvements in music discrimination, demonstrating the brain's ability to adapt neural circuits and enhance specific skills through learning.
The hippocampus, a crucial brain region for memory, also exhibits learning-induced plasticity. Disrupting neural activity related to sharp wave-ripple complexes during the awake state impairs hippocampal learning. Additionally, studies in rats have shown that electrical stimulation during sleep can enhance the consolidation of spatial memories, further highlighting the role of learning-induced plasticity in memory processes.
Overall, learning-induced plasticity is a fundamental aspect of brain development, enabling individuals to adapt and enhance their neural circuits in response to new experiences and learning. It is a lifelong process that underlies our ability to acquire new skills, consolidate memories, and adapt to changing environments.
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Frequently asked questions
Plasticity in development refers to the capacity of a species or individual to modify their behaviour to fit contextual demands at their most advanced level of development. It is a central concept in developmental psychology.
Phenotypic plasticity is a good example. This is when an organism's phenotype (observable characteristics) changes in response to environmental cues. For instance, the caterpillars of the peppered moth can change their coloration to match the colour of the twigs they rest on. Another example is how the environment during development can influence the limb morphology of the Anolis lizard (anole).
Plasticity has been identified as a core theoretical issue in the study of adult cognitive development. It is particularly pertinent to the study of decremental processes in aging, suggesting that cognitive decline may be reversible with enhancing experiences such as training and practice.
