Ethan Clarke
The discovery and development of plastics is a story that spans the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first synthetic plastic, Parkesine, was created by Alexander Parkes in 1855 or 1856. It was derived from cellulose, a natural polymer found in plant cell walls. John Wesley Hyatt built on this work in 1869, developing an early form of plastic called celluloid that became popular for photographic film and as a substitute for materials like ivory and tortoiseshell. However, the true birth of the modern plastics era is often attributed to Leo Baekeland, who invented Bakelite—the first fully synthetic plastic—in 1907. Baekeland's discovery marked the beginning of mass plastic production, and the subsequent emergence of the modern plastics industry. Other notable contributors to the development of plastics include Wallace Carothers, who invented nylon in 1935, and Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, who discovered polyethylene in 1933.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First synthetic plastic | Parkesine, created by Alexander Parkes in 1855 or 1856 |
| First synthetic plastic resin | Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907 |
| First synthetic fiber | Nylon, invented by Wallace Carothers in 1935 |
| First biodegradable plastic | Biopol, developed by ICI in 1990 |
| Polyethylene discovered by | Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett in 1933 |
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What You'll Learn
Alexander Parkes' Parkesine in 1855/1856
Alexander Parkes was a metallurgist and inventor from Birmingham, England, who is known for his development of various industrial processes and materials. He was born on December 29, 1813, and was the son of a manufacturer of brass locks. In 1855, he began experimenting with the creation of a substance that could replace ivory, which was becoming rarer and more expensive due to the dwindling supply of elephant tusks. This led to the creation of Parkesine, which he patented in 1856.
Parkesine was a flexible material made from various mixtures of nitrocellulose, alcohols, camphor, and oils. It was the first thermoplastic and predated the development of celluloid, the first plastic. Parkesine could be softened by heat and then placed in molds or carved by hand, making it a versatile material. It was also much less expensive than its counterparts in leather or rubber, giving it potential for economic success.
Parkes envisioned a wide range of applications for Parkesine, including brush backs, shoe soles, whips, walking sticks, buttons, brooches, buckles, decorative work, tubes, umbrellas, treated cloth, counters, and balls (especially billiard balls, which at the time were made of ivory). He also added dye to Parkesine, creating mottled effects by mixing different batches of red, yellow, green, and orange Parkesine, resulting in a brightly coloured product.
In 1866, Parkes founded the Parkesine Company to begin commercial production of his invention. However, his venture was ultimately unsuccessful due to the high cost of production, the poor quality of raw materials used, and the tendency of Parkesine to crack and its highly flammable nature. Despite this, Parkesine was a significant step forward in the development of plastics and modern materials, and it showcased the potential of synthetic polymers.
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John Wesley Hyatt's celluloid in 1869
John Wesley Hyatt was an American inventor and industrialist who played a significant role in the discovery of plastic. In 1869, Hyatt patented a process for making celluloid, which was the first practical artificial plastic. Hyatt's invention was inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for anyone who could provide a substitute for ivory, which was in high demand due to the growing popularity of billiards.
Hyatt's discovery was a result of his experiments with pyroxylin, a partially nitrated cellulose. He found that treating cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, a waxy resin obtained from Asian camphor trees, created a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitations of natural substances. This plastic, which he patented as celluloid, could be used to mimic materials like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
The process for making celluloid involved mixing nitrocellulose, camphor, and alcohol, and then pressing the mixture into a heated mould. Hyatt's invention was a breakthrough as it allowed human manufacturing to transcend the limitations of nature. The Albany Billiard Ball Company was formed to produce billiard balls using celluloid, demonstrating its early practical applications.
While Hyatt played a pivotal role in the discovery of plastic, it is important to acknowledge the contributions of his brother, Isaiah Hyatt. Together, they patented celluloid in 1870 and established the Celluloid Manufacturing Company in 1872. The company became a world leader in celluloid production, supplying unfinished celluloid to other companies that fabricated it into practical objects.
John Wesley Hyatt's work on celluloid laid the foundation for the development of synthetic polymers and the plastics industry. His innovations earned him numerous accolades, including induction into the Plastics Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame, recognising his significant contributions to the field of plastics and manufacturing.
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Leo Baekeland's Bakelite in 1907
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, marking the beginning of the modern plastics industry. Bakelite was made from phenol, then known as carbolic acid, and formaldehyde. Baekeland had been searching for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator, to meet the needs of the rapidly electrifying United States.
Bakelite was not only a good insulator, but it was also durable, heat resistant, and, unlike celluloid, ideally suited for mechanical mass production. It was marketed as "the material of a thousand uses," as it could be shaped or moulded into almost anything, providing endless possibilities.
Baekeland's discovery of Bakelite was a significant milestone in the history of plastics. He is often referred to as "The Father of the Plastics Industry" and has received numerous awards and honours for his invention. At the time of his death in 1944, the world production of Bakelite had reached approximately 175,000 tons, and it was used in over 15,000 different products.
The invention of Bakelite inspired other major chemical companies to invest in the research and development of new polymers, leading to the discovery of new plastics that soon joined celluloid and Bakelite in the market. Today, dozens of different types of plastics are produced, such as polyethylene, widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes due to its strength and durability.
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Wallace Carothers' nylon in 1935
The American chemist and inventor Wallace Hume Carothers is credited with the invention of nylon in 1935. Carothers was a group leader and the head of organic chemistry at the DuPont Experimental Station laboratory, near Wilmington, Delaware, where most polymer research was conducted.
Carothers' work in linear super-polymers began as an unrestricted foray into a new field in chemistry. While his research had no practical objective in mind, Du Pont believed that any new chemical breakthrough would be valuable to the company. Carothers excelled at creating polymers, and his work quickly led to the development of nylon.
On February 28, 1935, Gerard Berchet, under the direction of Carothers, produced a half-ounce of polymer from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, creating polyamide 6-6, the substance that would come to be known as Nylon. Nylon was the first totally synthetic fibre used in consumer products. It was challenging to work with due to its high melting point, but the team chose this polyamide for commercial development.
Nylon revolutionised the textile industry and paved the way for a variety of synthetic materials that have had a significant social and economic impact worldwide. It was the first fully synthetic fibre to be fashioned into consumer products, with properties superior to its natural counterparts, such as silk. Nylon stockings, for example, became an immediate worldwide sensation when they went on sale in department stores in 1939.
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Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett's polyethylene in 1933
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, who is also credited with coining the term "plastics". However, polyethylene, discovered in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, has become the world's most abundant plastic.
On 24 March 1933, Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, scientists at the UK chemical company ICI, began an experiment to create polyethylene. They heated a mixture of ethylene and benzaldehyde to 170°C (338°F) and subjected the materials to a pressure of 1,900 atmospheres (1,925 bars). The next morning, the pressure had risen to over 1,800 atmospheres, and they increased it again to over 1,900. When they returned on Monday, they discovered a waxy substance that was later identified as polyethylene.
Polyethylene is a polymer of ethylene, which was previously thought to be unable to polymerize because its double bond could only be activated at very high temperatures. However, Fawcett and Gibson's experiment proved otherwise, and polyethylene was successfully synthesized.
Polyethylene is strong, flexible, and heat-resistant, making it a versatile material with numerous applications. Its first use was in insulating radar cabling during World War II, but it soon found its way into consumer products such as plastic bags, Tupperware, and artificial joints. Today, polyethylene is widely used in product packaging due to its favourable properties.
The discovery of polyethylene by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett in 1933 was a significant contribution to the world of plastics, and it continues to be a commonly used material today.
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Frequently asked questions
The first synthetic plastic, known as Parkesine, was created by Alexander Parkes in 1855 or 1856. It was derived from cellulose, a natural polymer found in plant cell walls.
Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite in 1907, the first fully synthetic plastic. It was the first synthetic resin that retained its shape and did not conduct electricity.
John Wesley Hyatt developed celluloid, an early form of plastic, in 1869. Other notable contributors include Wallace Carothers, who invented nylon, and Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, who discovered polyethylene.
