Omar Khalid
Plastic is everywhere, and it's hard to imagine a world without it. The history of plastic is a long one, dating back to the use of natural materials with plastic properties, such as amber, horn, and tortoiseshell, which were heated and moulded into various objects. However, the quest to find synthetic alternatives to these materials, which were becoming scarce, led to the creation of the first manufactured plastic. Birmingham-born Alexander Parkes invented Parkesine, a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell, in 1862. However, it was John Wesley Hyatt who patented the process in 1869, and Leo Baekeland who invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, in 1907.
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What You'll Learn
Alexander Parkes invented Parkesine, the first plastic, in 1862
Parkes' invention was a significant development, as it was the first instance of a synthetic plastic, predating the creation of other plastics by several decades. This invention marked the beginning of a new era of human innovation, with plastic becoming an integral part of modern life.
Parkesine had a wide range of potential applications, including the development of clothing fabric, furniture, and insulation for telegraph cables. It was exhibited at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where it was well-received and garnered significant attention.
The process of creating Parkesine involved treating a solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of different solvents. This process resulted in a flexible and transparent material that could be moulded and shaped. Parkesine could also be coloured and made to mimic other materials, such as ivory and horn.
Despite its significance, Parkesine had some limitations, including its flammability and tendency to crack over time. However, it laid the foundation for future developments in plastic, with John Wesley Hyatt creating celluloid, an improved version of Parkesine, in 1868.
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John Wesley Hyatt created celluloid in 1868
John Wesley Hyatt (28 November 1837 – 10 May 1920) was an American inventor and industrialist. He is known for creating celluloid, the first artificial plastic, in 1868. Hyatt was born in Starkey, New York, and began working as a printer at the age of 16, eventually training in Illinois and then in Albany, New York.
In 1863, a New York billiards company offered a $10,000 reward to anyone who could invent a satisfactory substitute for ivory billiard balls. Attracted by the reward, Hyatt began experimenting with various compositions. Although none of his early attempts produced a successful billiard ball, one of his mixtures—a composite of wood pulp and shellac—was used to create embossed checkers and dominoes.
Hyatt continued his experiments and eventually discovered that an attractive and practical plastic material could be made by mixing nitrocellulose (a flammable nitrate of common wood or cotton cellulose), camphor (a waxy resin obtained from Asian camphor trees), and alcohol. This mixture could be heated and pressurised to make it pliable for moulding. In addition to creating this new material, he also developed the necessary machinery for working with it.
Hyatt patented his process for producing celluloid in the United States in 1869 (US patent 50359). He formed the Albany Dental Plate Company in 1870 to produce items such as billiard balls, false teeth, and piano keys. In 1872, he established the Hyatt Celluloid Manufacturing Company in Albany, New York, and moved it to Newark, New Jersey, in 1873. The company became the premier celluloid company in the world, producing celluloid sheets, rods, and other unfinished shapes that were then fabricated into practical objects by licensed companies.
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Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, in 1907
Plastic, a versatile and inexpensive material, owes its existence to Leo Baekeland, who invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, in 1907. Baekeland, a Belgian-born American chemist, is known as the "Father of the Plastics Industry" for his groundbreaking invention.
Bakelite, a synthetic thermosetting plastic, was created by Baekeland through the reaction of phenol and formaldehyde under heat and pressure. This process, known as the Baekelandization process, resulted in a hard, insoluble, and infusible plastic that could be moulded into various shapes. Baekeland's invention was a significant milestone as it represented the first synthetic plastic that could be mass-produced and adapted for a wide range of uses.
Prior to Baekeland's invention, natural plastics derived from organic materials such as shellac, derived from lac bugs, and Parkesine, derived from cellulose, had been created. However, these early plastics had limitations in terms of durability and mouldability. Baekeland's Bakelite, on the other hand, was highly versatile, durable, and adaptable to various manufacturing processes.
The invention of Bakelite revolutionised the industry, leading to the creation of countless plastic products that improved people's lives. From electrical insulators and radio casings to jewellery and kitchenware, Bakelite found its way into numerous applications. It also played a crucial role during World War I, being used in military hardware such as field telephones, aircraft, and submarine periscopes.
While Bakelite sparked the plastic revolution, the environmental implications of plastic were not fully understood at the time. The very durability that made plastics desirable also contributed to their persistence in the environment, leading to the plastic pollution crisis we face today. Nonetheless, Baekeland's invention of Bakelite remains a pivotal moment in the history of materials science and technology.
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Plastic's environmental impact: microplastics and bioplastics
Plastic is now an integral part of our lives, but it has also become one of the most serious environmental challenges of the 21st century. The first synthetic polymer, or plastic, was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes. This discovery revolutionised manufacturing, freeing it from the constraints of nature. However, the environmental impact of plastic has been significant, with plastic pollution affecting ecosystems and human health.
Environmental Impact of Plastics
Plastic's slow degradation, often over hundreds to thousands of years, has led to widespread plastic pollution. In 2019, the global annual output of plastic products reached 460 million tons, with only 9% recycled. Plastic particles were first discovered in the Atlantic Ocean in the 1970s, and today, microplastics are found in various environmental media, including water, soil, and the ocean. Microplastics, plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm in diameter, can be ingested, incorporated, and accumulated in the bodies and tissues of organisms, leading to potential toxic effects. The complex sources and diverse occurrences of microplastics make it challenging to determine their full impact on the environment and human health.
Microplastics and Their Hazards
Microplastics can enter the environment through various pathways, including oral intake, inhalation, and skin contact. They are commonly found in daily necessities like drinking water, bottled water, seafood, salt, sugar, and tea bags. Europeans, for example, are exposed to approximately 11,000 particles per person per year of microplastics through shellfish consumption. The toxic chemicals present in the ocean and runoff can biomagnify up the food chain, leading to potential health hazards. The size, shape, surface charge, and weathering processes of microplastics can influence their toxicity, with randomly shaped fragments causing more harmful physical effects.
Bioplastics and Their Degradation
Bioplastics, often considered environmentally friendly, may also contribute to environmental impacts. Recent studies have shown that bioplastics can degrade into micro- and nano-plastics under ambient environmental conditions. The degradation of biodegradable polymers can release toxic substances, and the formation and toxicity of these micro- and nano-plastics are not yet fully understood. There is a need for further research to assess the hidden environmental pollution caused by bioplastics and to develop sustainable management strategies for bioplastic wastes.
Mitigating Plastic Pollution
Efforts to mitigate plastic pollution have been ongoing since the 1980s and 1990s, with the development of biodegradable plastics and plastic recycling flourishing during this period. Awareness of microplastics and their impacts has spurred extensive research and policies to control plastic pollution. However, the complex nature of plastic pollution and the limitations of current assessment methods continue to pose challenges in fully understanding and addressing the issue.
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Plastic's many uses: from combs to parachutes
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Now, plastics are used for a variety of purposes, from combs to parachutes. Combs, for instance, were traditionally made using intricate materials like bone, wood, ivory, or rubber. However, with the advent of mass-produced plastics, combs became simpler, focusing on their basic function. Plastic combs are more accessible and cheaper than wooden combs due to mass production. They are also reusable and can last for years with proper care. Nonetheless, wooden combs are considered better for hair and health, as they are gentler on the scalp and help reduce dandruff and tangles. From an environmental perspective, wooden combs are also preferable as they can be composted, whereas plastic combs contribute to microplastic pollution.
Plastic is also used in parachutes, with plastic bags being a popular material for making miniature parachutes as toys. The underside of a parachute collects air as it falls, creating air pressure that pushes upwards, counteracting the force of gravity. Plastic bag parachutes can be easily crafted at home by cutting the bag into a square and tying strings to each corner.
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Frequently asked questions
The first plastic, Parkesine, was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented in 1862. It was derived from organic cellulose and could be heated and moulded into objects that retained their shape when cooled.
Parkesine was a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell. It was used to make items like combs and billiard balls, which had previously been made from animal products.
The first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland. It was made by combining phenol with formaldehyde under heat and pressure to create a condensation reaction that produced a polymer resin.
Bakelite was marketed as "the material of a thousand uses". It was durable, heat-resistant, and could be easily mass-produced, making it ideal for bringing new design trends such as Art Deco to the masses. It was used for products such as cameras, telephones, and radios.
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