Maya Ellison
The theory of plasticity has been proven in both the field of neuroscience and physics. In neuroscience, neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of its network of neurons. The first scientific evidence of anatomical brain plasticity was produced by Marian Diamond of the University of California, Berkeley, who published her research in 1964. Other significant evidence was produced by scientists including Paul Bach-y-Rita, Michael Merzenich, and Jon Kaas. In physics, plasticity, also known as plastic deformation, is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces. The mathematical theory of plasticity, or flow plasticity theory, uses a set of non-linear, non-integrable equations to describe the set of changes on strain and stress with respect to a previous state and a small increase in deformation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First scientific evidence of anatomical brain plasticity | Marian Diamond, University of California, Berkeley, published in 1964 |
| Other significant evidence in the 1960s | Paul Bach-y-Rita, Michael Merzenich, Jon Kaas |
| Attempt to describe mechanisms of neuroplasticity | Early version of the computational theory of mind derived from Hebb's work by Peter Putnam and Robert W. Fuller |
| Invention of a device to translate images received in a camera to a form of vision via sensory substitution | Paul Bach-y-Rita |
| Neuroplasticity studies | Stroke recovery, peripheral nerve regeneration, phantom limb sensation, brain mapping |
| Theories on biological processes that allow neuroplasticity | Christopher Shaw and Jill McEachern's "Toward a Theory of Neuroplasticity" |
| Mathematical theory of plasticity | Flow plasticity theory |
| Plasticity in physics and materials science | Ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces |
| Examples of plasticity in materials | Metals, soils, rocks, concrete, foams, ductile materials, crystalline materials |
| Plasticity theories | Deformation theory, total deformation theory, flow theory, continuum theory, crystallographic theory |
| Notable works on plasticity | R. Davis and A. Selvadurai's "Plasticity and Geomechanics"; Egon Orowan, Michael Polanyi, and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor's work on plastic deformation of ductile materials; Hill, R.'s "The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity" |
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What You'll Learn
Neuroplasticity
One of the most significant contributors to the discovery of neuroplasticity was Michael Merzenich in the 1970s. Merzenich's experiments aimed to prove that the brain was compartmentalized, specialized, and fixed. However, his findings contradicted his expectations and provided evidence for neuroplasticity. In one of his famous experiments, Merzenich cut and regenerated a peripheral nerve in a monkey's brain. He observed that the hand map in the brain normalized its structure, indicating that the brain could adapt and reorganize in response to abnormal input. This discovery challenged the prevailing view that the brain was hardwired and solidified into specialized functions.
The brain's neuroplasticity allows it to reorganize pathways, create new connections, and even generate new neurons. This process occurs throughout the lifetime, with young brains generally being more sensitive and responsive to experiences than older brains. However, adult brains remain capable of adaptation, and neuroplasticity can be influenced by factors such as learning, experience, memory formation, genetics, and the environment. Techniques such as specific exercise training, cognitive training, and neuropharmacology are being explored to manipulate neuroplasticity and improve patient outcomes in rehabilitation settings.
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Structural plasticity
The term "plasticity" was first introduced in the context of behaviour by William James in his 1890 book, "The Principles of Psychology". James described plasticity as "a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once". However, it was Italian anatomist Michele Vincenzo Malacarne who conducted some of the earliest experiments providing evidence for neuroplasticity. In 1793, Malacarne paired animals, trained one of them extensively, and then dissected them both. He discovered that the cerebellum of the trained animal was substantially larger than that of the untrained animal, suggesting that learning could lead to physical changes in the brain.
While Malacarne's findings were significant, they were eventually forgotten, and it was not until the 19th century that William James reintroduced the concept of neural plasticity. In the 20th century, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, an influential neuroscientist, proposed that neurons in adults break down and rebuild. Modern experimental tools, such as imaging technologies, have since provided extensive evidence for neuroplasticity, leading scientists to believe that it occurs throughout all life stages.
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Functional plasticity
A well-known example of functional plasticity is the enhancement of other senses, such as touch or sight, in individuals born without hearing. In such cases, the brain's auditory cortex, responsible for processing auditory information, becomes utilized for processing touch or visual stimuli instead. This demonstrates the brain's remarkable ability to adapt and reassign functions to different areas.
The concept of equipotentiality within functional plasticity suggests that when one area of the brain sustains damage, the opposing side can take over the lost function. This idea dates back to Galen and was used to explain the "twinned" nature of the brain. However, it is important to note that total functional recovery may not always be achievable, as it depends on the type and severity of the injury, as well as the availability of biologically viable material.
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Plastic deformation
In physics and materials science, plasticity, also known as plastic deformation, is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent, non-reversible deformation, or a change of shape in response to applied forces. Plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals, soils, rocks, concrete, and foams. However, the mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary.
At a crystalline scale, plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations. Such defects are relatively rare in most crystalline materials but are common in some and are part of their crystal structure. In 1934, Egon Orowan, Michael Polanyi, and Geoffrey Ingram Taylor simultaneously realized that the plastic deformation of ductile materials could be explained by the theory of dislocations.
The mathematical theory of plasticity, or flow plasticity theory, uses a set of non-linear, non-integrable equations to describe the set of changes on strain and stress with respect to a previous state and a small increase in deformation. If the stress exceeds a critical value, the material will undergo plastic deformation. This critical stress can be tensile or compressive.
In brittle materials such as rock, concrete, and bone, plasticity is caused predominantly by slip at microcracks. In cellular materials such as liquid foams or biological tissues, plasticity is mainly a consequence of bubble or cell rearrangements. For ductile metals, tensile loading will cause the material to behave elastically, with each increment of load accompanied by a proportional increment in extension. Once the load exceeds a threshold, the extension increases more rapidly, and some degree of extension will remain when the load is removed.
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Perfect plasticity
The concept of perfect plasticity was initially used to solve geotechnical stability problems involving geomaterials by Coulomb in 1773 and Rankine in 1857. It has since been applied to the analysis of other materials such as metals. Materials behaving according to the theory of perfect plasticity are characterised by the same size and shape of the yield surface under the development of plastic deformations. In these situations, the yield function is only a function of the stress state.
Plasticity, also known as plastic deformation, is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces. Plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals, soils, rocks, concrete, and foams. The physical mechanisms that cause plastic deformation can vary widely. At a crystalline scale, plasticity in metals is usually a consequence of dislocations.
Plasticity in a crystal of pure metal is primarily caused by two modes of deformation in the crystal lattice: slip and twinning. Slip is a shear deformation that moves atoms through many interatomic distances relative to their initial positions. Twinning is the plastic deformation that takes place along two planes due to a set of forces applied to a given metal piece. Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold.
The mathematical theory of plasticity, or flow plasticity theory, uses a set of non-linear, non-integrable equations to describe the set of changes on strain and stress with respect to a previous state and a small increase in deformation. If the stress exceeds a critical value, the material will undergo irreversible deformation.
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Frequently asked questions
Plasticity is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces.
Marian Diamond of the University of California, Berkeley, produced the first scientific evidence of anatomical brain plasticity, publishing her research in 1964.
Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of a network of neurons.
There are two types of neuroplasticity: structural neuroplasticity and functional neuroplasticity. Structural plasticity is the brain's ability to change its neuronal connections. Functional plasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of a network of neurons.
There are several mathematical descriptions of plasticity, including deformation theory, flow theory, and total deformation theory.
