Chloe Zhang
Marine debris, defined as any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or Great Lakes, is a pressing issue that impacts wildlife, human health, and safety. Plastic is one of the most common types of marine debris, with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimating that there are between 20 million and 1.8 billion pieces of plastic along the coastline of the United States. The prevalence of plastic marine debris is due to a variety of factors, including the durability of plastic, the increase in plastic production, and improper waste management. The impact of plastic pollution extends beyond the ocean, with plastic particles found in seafood, tap water, and salt. It has also been found to transport invasive species and accumulate pollutants, further endangering marine life and ecosystems.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Marine debris definition | "Any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or Great Lakes" |
| Marine debris sources | Land-based (80%) and ocean-based (20%) |
| Land-based sources | Urban runoff, litter, trash, debris from construction, ports, marinas, commercial and industrial facilities, landfills, tyre abrasion, construction, agriculture, synthetic clothing, etc. |
| Ocean-based sources | Discharges from ships, discarded fishing gear, natural disasters, etc. |
| Plastic impact on marine life | Ingestion, entanglement, suffocation, internal and external injuries, starvation, death |
| Plastic impact on humans | Plastic pollution in seafood, tap water, salt, etc., potentially causing acute and (sub)chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, and developmental toxicity |
| Plastic impact on the environment | Pollution of marine, freshwater, and land ecosystems, biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, contribution to climate change |
| Plastic pollution prevention | Reduced plastic production, increased circularity of supply and value chains, changed consumer behaviour, public and private investment, infrastructure development, reuse, refill, global plastics treaty |
| Plastic pollution costs | Cleanup costs, wasted resources, lost revenues, impact on fishing, tourism, and shipping industries |
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What You'll Learn
Plastic's durability and persistence
Marine debris is defined as "any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or Great Lakes". Plastics are one of the most common types of marine debris.
Plastics are synthetic, organic polymers made from fossil fuels such as gas and petroleum. They are designed to be durable and persistent, which is why they are so useful for a wide range of applications. However, this durability also means that plastic does not easily break down in the environment. In fact, the EPA reports that "every bit of plastic ever made still exists". As plastic breaks down very slowly, larger objects can be ingested by marine animals, and microplastics can also be consumed by smaller organisms, which can then be passed up the food chain.
As plastic does not biodegrade, it instead breaks down into smaller and smaller pieces over time, eventually becoming microplastics (smaller than 5mm) and nanoplastics (smaller than 100nm). These smaller plastic particles can be consumed by smaller organisms, which can then be passed up the food chain. Microplastics are much more difficult to clean up than larger pieces of plastic, and their small size means they can impact more species.
The durability of plastic means that it is now found in all of the Earth's major ocean gyres, with the largest accumulation of plastic in the world being in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. This gyre has 180 times more plastic than biomass, indicating that plastic could be a primary food source for organisms in this region.
The persistence of plastic in the environment is a major problem, as it is harmful to marine life and ecosystems. Marine animals can become entangled in plastic debris, and plastic waste can cause internal and external injuries, intestinal blockages, and even death. Plastic debris can also transport invasive species to new environments, threatening the balance of marine ecosystems.
The impact of plastic pollution is not limited to the oceans. Plastics and microplastics have been found in tap water, salt, and seafood, and can have toxic effects on human health.
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Sources of marine debris
Marine debris is a global problem, with plastic items being the most common type found in oceans, waterways, and lakes. The durability of plastic is one of the main reasons it is so damaging as marine debris—it does not degrade or break down like other materials, instead fragmenting into smaller pieces known as microplastics. These microplastics are extremely difficult to remove and may never fully disappear.
The sources of marine plastic pollution are varied, but most of the plastic in our oceans comes from land-based sources. By weight, 70% to 80% of plastic is transported from land to sea via rivers or coastlines, with the remaining 20% to 30% coming from marine sources such as fishing nets, lines, ropes, and abandoned vessels. A 2021 study found that 44% of plastic debris in rivers, oceans, and on shorelines was made up of bags, bottles, and items related to takeout meals.
The United States is a major contributor to marine plastic pollution, with a study by Law et al. revealing that the country is responsible for a larger portion of plastic waste entering the marine environment than previously thought. In 2016, the United States was the largest producer of plastic waste worldwide, creating 42 million metric tons of plastic waste. The same study found that the United States was the third-largest contributor to mismanaged plastic waste through littering, illegal dumping, and exporting to other countries where waste is not properly disposed of.
Marine debris can also come from other countries, with a variety of sources, including urban and stormwater runoff, littering, industrial activities, tyre abrasion, construction, and agriculture. In the marine environment, plastic pollution originates primarily from land runoff but also includes paint shed from shipping and discarded fishing gear.
The impact of marine plastic pollution on ecosystems is significant. It affects all land, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, driving biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and contributing to climate change. The most visible impacts on species include ingestion, suffocation, and entanglement, with wildlife mistaking plastic waste for food and dying of starvation as their stomachs become filled with indigestible material.
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Impact on marine life
Marine debris is defined as “any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or Great Lakes”. The most common types of marine debris include fishing gear, plastic bags, beverage bottles, balloons, food wrappers, and vessels. Marine debris has been found even in the deepest parts of the ocean, such as in the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument.
Plastic debris in the ocean has been documented to injure and kill marine life, including fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. Marine plastic pollution has impacted at least 267 species worldwide, including 86% of all sea turtle species, 44% of all seabird species, and 43% of all marine mammal species.
Plastic ingestion by marine life leads to loss of nutrition, internal injury, intestinal blockage, starvation, and death. Seabirds that feed on the ocean surface are especially prone to ingesting plastic debris. Adults inadvertently feed plastic to their chicks, resulting in detrimental effects on their growth and survival. A study found that approximately 98% of chicks sampled contained plastic and the quantity of ingested plastic was increasing over time.
Plastic debris in the ocean can also entangle marine life, causing loss of limbs and even death. Sea turtles and whales are among the marine species that often mistake plastic for prey. For example, sea turtles show a strong preference for clear, sheet plastic items, such as plastic bags and balloons. Whales have been documented to accidentally gulp down balloons when feeding, and ingest other plastic items such as single-use cutlery, water bottles, and their caps.
The impact of plastic pollution extends beyond the directly affected marine life. Floating plastics in the oceans accumulate pollutants and transport them through ocean currents. Plastics can also act as a transport mechanism for invasive species, further upsetting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.
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Human health risks
Marine debris, particularly plastic waste, poses significant risks to human health. Firstly, it can directly harm individuals through physical contact or ingestion. Sharp objects, such as discarded plastic fragments, can cause injuries, especially in recreational areas where people may be swimming, boating, or diving. This risk is heightened for children who may inadvertently play with or ingest hazardous materials while exploring beaches or coastal areas.
Secondly, plastic debris in the ocean enters the human food chain. Research has shown that marine life, including fish, shellfish, and even seabirds, ingest plastic fragments and microplastics. For example, a 2008 study in the Pacific Gyre found that 35% of the fish caught had ingested plastic pieces. More recently, a study of fish markets in California found plastic microfibers in a quarter of the fish sampled. This issue is not limited to the ocean; plastic particles have been detected in high concentrations in the Great Lakes, with even higher counts in Lake Ontario.
The ingestion of plastic by marine life is particularly concerning as these particles can contain or attract toxins and harmful chemicals. Plastics may absorb and later release these toxins, which can include additives and manufacturing chemicals. As larger pieces of plastic break down into microplastics, the surface area available to absorb toxins increases, exacerbating the problem over time. When humans consume seafood containing microplastics, they may inadvertently ingest these toxins and chemicals, potentially leading to adverse health effects.
While the specific health risks associated with consuming plastic-contaminated seafood are still being studied, there is growing concern about the long-term implications. The pervasive nature of plastic pollution makes it challenging to isolate its full effects on human health. However, the presence of microplastics in the human food chain underscores the urgency of addressing this global issue.
Additionally, plastic pollution contributes to broader issues that indirectly impact human health. It damages ecosystems, threatening biodiversity and the services they provide, such as coastal protection and freshwater provision. Plastic waste can also interfere with navigational safety, posing risks to maritime travel and trade. Furthermore, the economic burden of plastic pollution can negatively affect human communities, particularly those dependent on marine resources for their livelihoods.
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Clean-up and prevention
Clean-up Efforts:
- Beach Clean-ups: While beach clean-ups have been criticised for being short-sighted and potentially damaging to near-surface ecosystems, they can be effective when complemented with educational initiatives. Local organisations like the Marine Conservation Society in the UK and international efforts such as the European Blue Flag Scheme are good examples of beach clean-up programmes with educational components.
- Mechanical Removal: This involves the mechanical and complete removal of debris from coastal areas, including strandlines. However, this approach has been controversial, as it may destroy ecologically significant habitats.
- The Ocean Cleanup: This organisation focuses on removing larger pieces of plastic from the ocean to prevent them from breaking down into microplastics, which are more challenging to clean up. Their research indicates that clean-up operations have a net positive effect, with marine organisms being more vulnerable to plastic pollution than to the impacts of removal efforts.
- NOAA Marine Debris Program: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provides educational resources for students, educators, and communities to raise awareness about marine debris and empower individuals to take action.
- Great Pacific Garbage Patch Management: The Great Pacific Garbage Patch has an extremely high concentration of plastic, indicating that plastic could be a primary food source for organisms in the region. Removing plastic from this area is crucial to protecting marine life.
Prevention Initiatives:
- Reducing Disposable Product Usage: Preventing the generation of disposable products is cost-effective and environmentally beneficial. Initiatives like Clean Water Fund's ReThink Disposable program aim to reduce the use of disposable packaging and products, promoting sustainable alternatives.
- Improving Waste Management: Proper waste management practices are essential to preventing plastic pollution. This includes addressing issues such as littering, storm water discharge, and improper disposal of plastics.
- Addressing Ocean-Based Sources: Ocean-based sources, such as discharges from ships and discarded fishing gear, contribute to marine debris. The Save our Seas Act of 2018 promotes international action, authorises cleanup responses, and increases coordination among federal agencies to tackle this issue.
- International Cooperation: The UN Environment Assembly has recognised the importance of addressing plastic pollution, with 175 countries adopting a resolution to end plastic pollution through a legally binding international instrument. This signifies a growing momentum for global cooperation to tackle the plastic crisis.
- Education and Awareness: Increasing public awareness about the impacts of plastic pollution and promoting responsible consumer behaviour are crucial aspects of prevention. Educational campaigns can target individuals, industries, and policymakers to drive systemic change.
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Frequently asked questions
Marine debris is defined as “any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or Great Lakes”.
Anything man-made can become marine debris, including fishing gear, plastic bags, beverage bottles, balloons, food wrappers, and even vessels.
Plastic is one of the most common forms of marine debris because it is commonly used in many items and society has developed new uses for plastic over time. The sheer amount of plastic that is currently produced has overwhelmed existing waste management systems, and plastic escapes from many different sources, including litter, industrial discharges, and disposal.
Plastic marine debris has a direct and deadly effect on wildlife, endangers aquatic habitats, and costs local and national economies millions in cleanup costs, wasted resources, and lost revenues. It also impacts human health and safety. Marine animals such as birds, whales, fish, and turtles mistake indigestible plastic waste for food and die of starvation or internal injuries. Plastic marine debris can also transport invasive species to new environments, threatening biodiversity.
To reduce plastic marine debris, fewer plastic products need to be made, the circularity of supply and value chains must be increased, and consumer behaviour must be changed. Public and private investment in infrastructure along the full lifecycle of plastics is also necessary, including circular economy solutions like reuse and refill. A global plastics treaty is essential because plastic pollution is transboundary and a major driver of biodiversity loss.
