Chloe Zhang
Plastic is everywhere, and so is plastic waste. With the world producing over nine billion tons of plastic since the 1950s, and only about 9% of it being recycled, the search for alternatives is more urgent than ever. One such alternative is cellulose, a natural polymer that constitutes plant cell walls and is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. Cellulose-based plastics were some of the first plastics ever discovered, and they are making a comeback as an eco-friendly, biodegradable alternative to conventional plastics. Cellulose nanofibers, for instance, are being explored as a potential replacement for petroleum-based plastics, with researchers using electrophoretic deposition to fabricate anisotropic cellulose-nanofiber-based hydrogels and moldings. Cellulose is also being used to produce bioplastics, with applications in food packaging, soap, cannabis, pharmaceutical, and electronic packaging. With its eco-friendly and biodegradable properties, cellulose is well-positioned to be a dominant solution in the fight against plastic waste.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Environmental Impact | Unlike conventional plastics, cellulose is eco-friendly, recyclable, and compostable. |
| Raw Material | Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer on Earth, constituting an almost inexhaustible source of raw material. |
| Production | Cellulose is produced from renewable biomass sources such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, and agricultural waste. |
| Properties | Bioplastics made from cellulose can have the same qualities as conventional plastics, such as durability and flexibility, while also being biodegradable. |
| Applications | Cellulose bioplastics can be used for food packaging, bottles, cups, trays, soap packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, and electronic packaging. |
| Limitations | Cellulose-based plastics may not work in all situations and many of them are not biodegradable. |
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What You'll Learn
Pros and cons of cellulose as a plastic alternative
Pros
Cellulose is an organic carbohydrate polymer that makes up the cell walls of plants and algae, making it the most abundant biopolymer on Earth. It is also a renewable resource, unlike petroleum, which is the main raw material used in plastic production. This makes cellulose a more sustainable alternative to plastic.
Cellulose-based packaging is already being used as an alternative to plastic, especially in the food and beverage sector. Cellophane, for example, is a transparent, thin, biodegradable plastic-like material originally used as candy wrapping but has since expanded into alternative food packaging. It is projected to replace plastic film packaging soon.
Cellulose can also be used to produce bioplastics, which are biodegradable and more environmentally friendly than petroleum-based plastics. These bioplastics can be utilized to make food containers, bottles, cups, or trays.
Additionally, researchers at the University of Göttingen have found a sustainable method called "hydrosetting," which uses water at normal conditions to process and reshape a new type of hydroplastic polymer called cellulose cinnamate (CCi). This unique method enables the production of a variety of shapes by simply immersing the bioplastic in water and leaving it to dry in the air.
Cons
One disadvantage of cellulose is that it does not work in all situations. Many cellulose-based plastics are not biodegradable and most require petrochemicals in their production.
Bioplastics, in general, are still in the early stages of development and face challenges in end-of-life disposal. While they are made from biodegradable substances, they need to be disposed of properly. If not, they can end up in landfills or disrupt the recycling process of conventional plastics.
Furthermore, while cellulose packaging is gaining traction, it has a lower annual growth rate of 4.9% compared to the predicted 70% growth in the food and beverage sector from 2018 to 2028. This indicates that while cellulose is a promising alternative, there are still barriers to its widespread adoption.
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Cellulose packaging
Cellulose can also be used as a base material for bioplastics, which can be used to make food containers, bottles, cups, or trays. These bioplastics have enhanced mechanical properties and are highly water-resistant. The use of cellulose-based packaging helps reduce the accumulation of plastic waste and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional plastic packaging.
The production of cellulose packaging also has environmental benefits. It requires less energy and emits fewer greenhouse gases during manufacturing. The use of renewable plant-based materials reduces dependency on fossil fuels and promotes sustainable forestry practices, which help offset carbon emissions.
The future of cellulose packaging looks promising, with a predicted compound annual growth rate of 4.9% between 2018 and 2028. This growth is expected to be driven mainly by the food and beverage sector, with cellulose food packaging, such as cellophane, leading the way.
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Cellulose bioplastics
The global plastic waste crisis demands urgent solutions. While plastic is lightweight, cheap, and adaptable, its production, processing, and disposal pose a significant threat to the environment and human health. As a result, researchers and companies are actively exploring alternatives to conventional plastics, including cellulose bioplastics.
Cellulose is an organic carbohydrate polymer that forms the cell walls of plants and algae, making it the most abundant natural polymer on Earth. It is a renewable resource, and its abundance and stiffness make it ideal for manufacturing environmentally friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Wood pulp, derived from trees, is the most common source of cellulose, but it can also be sourced from agricultural waste.
Cellulose-based packaging, such as cellophane, paper, and cardboard, is already gaining popularity as an alternative to plastic packaging. Cellophane, a thin, transparent, and biodegradable material, is widely used in food packaging and for wrapping items like soap and gifts. Cellulose derivatives, such as bioadhesive polymers, are also preferred in medicine and healthcare packaging. The versatility of cellulose bioplastics is further demonstrated by their potential applications in biology, electronics, and medicine.
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Eco-friendliness of cellulose
Cellulose is an eco-friendly and sustainable material with a wide range of applications, including as an alternative to plastics. It is a versatile and biodegradable textile material derived from plants, offering a natural alternative to synthetic fabrics such as polyester and nylon. Unlike synthetic materials, cellulose can break down naturally without releasing harmful microplastics into the environment. The production process for cellulose fibres can also be less resource-intensive and more environmentally friendly than that of synthetic materials, as it requires fewer chemicals and can utilise renewable resources such as wood pulp or agricultural waste.
The eco-friendliness of cellulose is further enhanced by its ability to be produced in a closed-loop system, as demonstrated by companies like TENCEL™, which recycle water and minimise waste. This makes cellulose a promising material for reducing environmental impact, particularly in the fashion industry.
Cellulose has unique intrinsic properties that make it attractive for a variety of applications. It has good biocompatibility, biodegradability, facile chemical modifiability, high transparency, good toughness, better mouldability, and intriguing luminescence. These characteristics have led to its use in the paper, textile, cosmetic, and biomedical industries, as well as in alternative energy sources and modern composite materials.
Cellulose-based materials also have potential in optical anticounterfeiting applications. Cellulose-based fluorescent composites can be used in security printing, information encryption, and dynamic anticounterfeiting. These composites have excellent processability and film-forming capability, and can be tuned using external stimuli to exhibit a wide spectrum of full-colour emission and dynamic colour and intensity properties.
In terms of replacing plastics, cellulose nanofibers have been identified as a potential alternative to petroleum-based plastics. These ultrasmall fibers help plants maintain rigid yet lightweight structures, and they can be oriented in different directions by controlling the applied voltage. This ability to tailor the hierarchical nature of cellulose nanofibers makes them a promising area of research for synthetic tissue and other bioengineering applications.
However, it is important to note that not all cellulose fibres are equal in terms of environmental impact. While cellulose packaging, such as cellophane, paper, and cardboard, is biodegradable and renewable, some cellulose-based plastics may not be biodegradable and may still require petrochemicals in their production.
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Cellulose production methods
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula C6H10O5, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to several thousand glucose units. It is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth and is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton for industrial use.
The production of cellulose involves the following steps:
Selection of Natural Cellulose Sources
The process of cellulose fiber production begins with the careful selection of natural cellulose sources, such as wood pulp derived from trees or agricultural waste.
Cleaning and Washing
The chosen cellulose source undergoes mechanical cleaning and washing to remove any impurities that could affect its performance in the final product.
Refinement
This stage involves mechanical and, sometimes, chemical treatment to isolate and process the cellulose fibers into the required size and consistency. The cellulose fibers are individualized through mechanical treatment of cellulose pulp, often assisted by chemical oxidation or enzymatic treatment. This process yields semi-flexible cellulose nanofibrils that are generally 200 nm to 1 μm in length, depending on the treatment intensity.
Treatment with Acid
Cellulose pulp may be treated with strong acids to hydrolyze the amorphous fibril regions, resulting in the production of short, rigid cellulose nanocrystals a few hundred nanometers in length. These nanocelluloses have gained significant interest due to their potential applications in technology and bioengineering.
Molding and Fabrication
Techniques such as electrophoretic deposition are used to mold and fabricate cellulose nanofibers into controlled orientations, exhibiting anisotropy. By altering the applied voltage, the nanofibers can be oriented horizontally, randomly, or vertically, allowing for the creation of complex architectures.
Cellulose has been used to produce various materials, including paperboard, paper, cellophane, and rayon. It is also being explored as a renewable fuel source through the conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels like cellulosic ethanol.
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Frequently asked questions
Cellulose is an organic carbohydrate polymer that makes up the cell walls of plants and algae. This makes it the most abundant biopolymer on Earth.
Cellulose is used to produce a type of bioplastic that is biodegradable and more environmentally friendly than petroleum-based plastics. These bioplastics can be used to make food containers, bottles, cups, trays, and other packaging.
Unlike conventional plastics made from petroleum, cellulose is a renewable resource. It is also biodegradable and has a lower carbon footprint. Additionally, cellulose bioplastics can be moulded using little more than water at everyday temperatures and pressures, making them more sustainable and eco-friendly.
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