Maya Ellison
The creation of plastic marked a significant milestone in human history, with the 20th and 21st centuries even being dubbed the ''Plastics Age'. The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, inspired by the need for an alternative to ivory. This discovery was revolutionary as, for the first time, human manufacturing was not constrained by the limits of nature. However, the big breakthrough, or the birth of the modern plastics era, came in 1907 with the invention of Bakelite by Leo Baekeland, the first fully synthetic plastic derived from fossil fuels. Since then, the plastics industry has witnessed exponential growth, with global plastic production reaching over 460 million metric tons in 2021.
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What You'll Learn
Early plastics
The word "plastic" originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". Plastics are synthetic or semisynthetic materials composed primarily of polymers, which are large molecules consisting of a chain of repeating smaller molecules (monomers).
The history of plastic goes back centuries before the Common Era, with people using the plastic properties of materials like rubber, amber, horn, and tortoiseshell. These early plastics were of natural origin, derived from non-fossil raw materials such as oil. The earliest known plastic manipulated by humans is believed to have been latex, used to craft balls and figurines in South America around 1,600 years before the Common Era.
In the 19th century, the French explorer Charles-Marie de La Condamine discovered the rubber tree in the Amazon basin. This led to the American Charles Goodyear and the British Thomas Hancock taking out patents for "vulcanised" rubber in the 1840s, treating it with sulphur to make it more durable. However, the first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for a substitute for ivory. Hyatt treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, creating a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and made to imitate natural substances.
In 1862, British inventor Alexander Parkes displayed an early form of plastic called Parkesine at the London International Exhibition. Parkesine was derived from plant cellulose and exhibited characteristics such as being rigid and flexible, water-resistant, and amenable to shaping with tools. While Parkes did not achieve commercial success, his invention was later developed by others, including John Wesley Hyatt, who founded the Celluloid Manufacturing Company in the US. Hyatt's improvement of Parkesine's malleability and its renaming to celluloid in 1870 provided the raw material for the film industry.
The 20th century witnessed the emergence of plastics in industry, with new types of plastics multiplying and supplanting natural materials, especially during the world wars. In 1907, Belgian-born American chemist Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic containing no molecules found in nature. Bakelite was durable, heat resistant, and suitable for mechanical mass production. It found extensive application in items such as telephone casings, saucepan handles, electrical sockets, and ashtrays.
The early decades of the 20th century also saw the formation of alliances between the petroleum and chemical industries, leading to the creation of companies that are still major producers of raw material resins for the plastics industry today. In 1926, Waldo Semon devised a method for plasticizing PVC, making it more pliable and easier to manufacture. The following years saw the industrial production of polystyrene and polyamide, with polyamide being promoted as "as strong as steel, as delicate as a spider's web, and possessing a magnificent sheen".
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First synthetic polymers
The word "polymer" means "of many parts", and polymers are made of long chains of molecules. Polymers are found in nature, with cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, being a common natural polymer.
Humans have been using polymers for millennia, with the Olmecs in Mexico playing with balls made of natural rubber over a millennium before Christ. In the 1840s, Charles Goodyear and Thomas Hancock patented "vulcanised" rubber, treating it with sulphur to make it more durable.
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor to create a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and made to imitate substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This discovery was revolutionary, as it freed human manufacturing from the limits of nature.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, meaning it contained no molecules found in nature. Baekeland had been searching for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mechanical mass production.
The development of synthetic polymers has continued, with major chemical companies investing in the research and development of new polymers. Synthetic polymers are now made using carbon atoms from petroleum and other fossil fuels, leading to the widespread use of plastics around the world.
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Bakelite, the first synthetic plastic
The creation of synthetic plastics was revolutionary for the chemical industry, which at the time made most of its income from cloth dyes and explosives. Bakelite, the world's first commercial synthetic plastic, was named a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society.
The reaction between phenol and aldehyde was first reported in 1872 by German chemist Adolf von Baeyer, though its use as a commercial product was not considered at the time. Belgian-born chemist Leo Baekeland, who had already invented Velox photographic paper, began to investigate the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde in his home laboratory. His intention was to find a synthetic replacement for shellac, a natural electrical insulator that was in limited supply as it was made from the secretion of lac insects.
Baekeland began experimenting with strengthening wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin rather than coating it. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced a hard, moldable material that he named Bakelite, after himself and the heat-curing process it required. It was the first synthetic thermosetting plastic produced, and Baekeland speculated on the many products it could be used to make. He filed a substantial number of related patents, with his method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde granted on December 7, 1909.
Bakelite's molding process had a number of advantages. The resin could be provided either as powder or as preformed partially cured slugs, increasing the speed of the casting. Thermosetting resins required heat and pressure during the molding cycle but could be removed from the molding process without being cooled, again making the molding process faster. Bakelite objects also required less finishing due to the smooth polished surface that resulted. Millions of parts could be duplicated quickly and relatively cheaply.
Bakelite was strong, moldable, and cheap to make, leading to its use in many products. It was ideal for manufacturing everything from telephone handsets and costume jewelry to bases and sockets for light bulbs, automobile engine parts, and washing machine components. By the time of Baekeland's death in 1944, the world production of Bakelite was estimated at around 175,000 tons, used in over 15,000 different products.
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PVC and polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely used synthetic plastic that has become integral to various industries, particularly construction and manufacturing. It was first discovered in the 1800s by French physicist Henri Victor Regnault and German chemist Eugen Baumann, who noticed a white solid forming within flasks filled with vinyl chloride gas. However, it wasn't until the 1920s that PVC gained traction when American scientist Waldo Semon identified its potential for waterproof applications, leading to its use in products like raincoats. By the 1950s, PVC production soared globally, and it is now the third best-selling plastic in the world. PVC is valued for its durability, fire resistance, waterproof qualities, and resistance to various chemicals. It is commonly used in construction, textiles, transportation, and healthcare.
Polystyrene, on the other hand, is a synthetic polymer made from monomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon styrene. It was accidentally discovered by German pharmacist Eduard (or Edward) Simon in 1839. Simon distilled an oily substance from storax, the resin of the Oriental sweetgum tree, and named it styrol, now known as styrene. Several days later, he found that it had transformed into a jelly-like polymer. However, it wasn't until the 1930s that polystyrene was commercialised by the IG Farben Company, who manufactured it as a hard and colourless polymer that could be cast into detailed moulds. The Dow Chemical Company later introduced polystyrene foam, which was lighter and expanded to a much larger size than regular polystyrene. This foam polystyrene, trademarked as Styrofoam, became widely used for protective packaging due to its excellent impact resistance, lightweight nature, and low cost.
While both PVC and polystyrene have had significant industrial applications, they have also faced challenges due to environmental concerns. PVC, once labelled as a "bad" plastic, has been replaced by some companies with more sustainable alternatives. Similarly, polystyrene has been banned in some places, such as New York City, due to its non-biodegradability, hazard to marine life, and contamination of organic programmes.
Today, PVC and polystyrene continue to be widely produced and utilised, with PVC being one of the best-selling plastics globally. However, as environmental awareness spreads, the persistence of plastic waste and the search for sustainable alternatives have become pressing issues.
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Plastic consumption and production
The history of plastic production dates back to the creation of the first synthetic polymer by John Wesley Hyatt in 1869. This plastic, derived from cellulose and camphor, could be crafted into various shapes and used to imitate materials like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. However, the first fully synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mechanical mass production. It found extensive applications in items such as telephone casings, saucepan handles, and electrical sockets.
The emergence of new plastics in the 20th century led to the supplanting of natural materials, particularly during the world wars when certain natural resources became scarce. Alliances between the petroleum and chemical industries resulted in the formation of companies that remain major producers of raw material resins for the plastics industry today, including Dow Chemicals, ExxonMobil, DuPont, and BASF.
The success and dominance of plastics have brought significant benefits to mankind, from medical devices to lightweight construction materials. However, the slow decomposition rate of plastics has led to widespread environmental concerns. Most plastic has not been reused, with only a small percentage being recycled or incinerated. Plastic recycling has faced economic and technical challenges, and the plastics industry has been criticized for lobbying for expansion despite the challenges of economic recycling.
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Frequently asked questions
Humans have been using naturally derived plastics for a long time. For example, in medieval times, craftsmen made lantern windows out of translucent slices of animal horn. The Olmecs in Mexico played with balls made of rubber around 1500 years before Christ.
The big breakthrough that marked the beginning of the modern plastics era came in 1907 with the invention of Bakelite by the Belgian-born American Leo Baekeland. It was the first synthetic plastic derived from fossil fuels, not plants or animals.
Bakelite found extensive applications in items such as telephone casings, saucepan handles, electrical sockets, and ashtrays.
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt. He created a plastic that could be crafted into a variety of shapes and made to imitate natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
