Alexei Volkov
Plastic is a term used to describe materials that can be formed and moulded under heat and pressure. While we often think of plastic as a 20th-century material, natural plastics such as horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber and shellac have been used since ancient times. The first manufactured plastic was created in 1862 by Birmingham-born inventor Alexander Parkes, who patented the substance under the name Parkesine. However, the widespread use of plastic only took off during World War II, when there was a high demand for durable, lightweight, and inexpensive materials. After the war, plastic became increasingly integrated into everyday life, but concerns about plastic waste began to emerge. Today, plastic is everywhere, and microplastics have been detected in the human bloodstream.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First plastic material produced | 1862 by Alexander Parkes |
| First fully synthetic plastic | 1909 by Leo Baekeland |
| First synthetic polymer | 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt |
| Plastic as a category of materials | Polymers |
| Polymers | Large molecules, consisting of a chain of repeating smaller molecules (monomers) |
| Plastic's primary uses | Packaging (40%), building and construction (20%) |
| Plastic waste | Burning, recycling, landfills, pollution |
| Plastic's reputation fell | 1970s and 1980s due to anxiety about waste |
| Plastic debris in oceans first observed | 1960s |
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What You'll Learn
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869
The word "plastic" originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". It has only recently been used to refer to a category of materials called polymers. Polymers are made of long chains of molecules, and they are abundant in nature. Cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, is a common natural polymer.
Over the last century and a half, humans have learned how to make synthetic polymers, using natural substances like cellulose, or carbon atoms from petroleum and other fossil fuels. Synthetic polymers are made up of long chains of atoms, often longer than those found in nature, and it is the length of these chains that makes polymers strong, lightweight, and flexible.
However, it was not until 1907 that the first fully synthetic plastic was invented by Leo Baekeland. Baekeland had been searching for a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator, to meet the needs of the rapidly electrifying United States. He invented Bakelite, a material that was not only a good insulator but also durable, heat resistant, and ideally suited for mechanical mass production. Bakelite could be shaped or moulded into almost anything, and its discovery opened the floodgates to a torrent of now-familiar synthetic plastics.
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Plastic's environmental impact became a concern in the 1960s
The first synthetic plastic, Bakelite, was produced in 1907, marking the beginning of the global plastics industry. However, the real growth in global plastic production didn't happen until the 1950s. Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic were produced, with more than half of this amount being generated since 2004.
The Plastics Age, as the 20th and 21st centuries have been dubbed, has had a profound impact on the environment. In the postwar years, Americans' perceptions of plastic began to shift, and the material was no longer seen as entirely positive. This shift in perception occurred during a pivotal decade for environmental awareness: the 1960s.
In 1962, Rachel Carson's groundbreaking book, *Silent Spring*, exposed the dangers of chemical pesticides. This was followed by a major oil spill off the California coast in 1969 and the polluted Cuyahoga River in Ohio catching fire, raising concerns about pollution. As awareness about environmental issues spread, the persistence of plastic waste began to trouble observers. Plastic debris in the oceans, first observed in the 1960s, became a visible concern.
The term "plastic" also underwent a semantic shift during this time, becoming associated with notions of cheapness, flimsiness, and fakeness. In the 1968 movie *The Graduate*, Dustin Hoffman's character was urged to make a career in plastics, reflecting the changing perception of the material.
The environmental impact of plastics became further scrutinized in the 1970s and 1980s, with growing concerns about waste and the health implications of plastic additives. The plastics industry responded by offering recycling as a solution, and municipalities were encouraged to collect and process recyclable materials. However, the reality of recycling fell short, with most plastics still ending up in landfills or polluting the environment.
The infamous Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a swirl of plastic garbage the size of Texas floating in the Pacific Ocean, epitomizes the global challenge of plastic waste. With the continued production and use of plastics, the environmental impact of this material remains a critical concern today.
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Plastic recycling was advocated in the 1970s
Plastic has been a part of human history since ancient times, with natural plastics like horn, tortoiseshell, amber, rubber, and shellac being used since antiquity. However, the story of plastic as we know it today, a synthetic polymer created by humans, began in the 19th century. The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who created a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate natural substances. This marked the beginning of the Plastics Age, which spans the 20th and 21st centuries.
During the postwar years, the perception of plastics in America became more nuanced, and by the 1970s and 1980s, plastic's reputation had taken a hit due to increasing anxiety about waste. The environmental movements of the 1960s and 1970s, spurred by incidents like the 1969 oil spill off the California coast and the publication of Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" in 1962, brought a heightened awareness of environmental issues. Plastic waste in the oceans, first observed in the 1960s, became a growing concern.
It was in this context that plastic recycling began to be advocated for in the 1970s. The formation of environmental agencies, such as the EPA in the US in 1970, DG ENV in the EU in 1973, and similar organizations in Australia and Japan, reflected a global concern for the environment. The 1973 and 1978 MARPOL agreements, which banned dumping plastics in the oceans, were early efforts to address plastic pollution.
The plastics industry responded to the growing environmental concerns by promoting recycling as a solution. However, even as they advocated for recycling, industry insiders knew that recycling plastic on a large scale was unlikely to be economically viable. Internal documents from as early as 1973 acknowledged the challenges of recycling plastic, and by 1974, an industry insider expressed serious doubt that recycling plastic could ever be made economically viable. Despite this knowledge, the industry spent millions of dollars promoting the idea of recycling to the public, ensuring that recycling programs were expanded, and lobbying for the establishment of curbside recycling.
The push for plastic recycling in the 1970s was driven by a combination of factors, including increasing environmental awareness, the formation of environmental agencies, and the plastics industry's efforts to preserve their business interests. While recycling offered a promising solution to the growing waste problem, the challenges and limitations of plastic recycling, particularly on a large scale, would become more apparent in the following decades.
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Plastic's negative reputation grew in the 1970s and 1980s
The 20th and 21st centuries have been dubbed the "Plastics Age", and it's hard to imagine a world without plastic. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, plastic's reputation took a significant knock as concerns about its environmental and health impacts grew.
The post-war years saw a shift in American perceptions of plastic, which was no longer seen as an unambiguously positive material. The 1960s was a decade of heightened environmental awareness, with incidents such as the 1969 California oil spill and the Cuyahoga River fire in Ohio raising red flags about pollution. This awakening prompted a reassessment of plastics, with the persistence of plastic waste in the environment becoming a particular concern.
By the 1970s, scientists had been aware of the problem of plastic pollution in the ocean for around two decades, and the chemical and petroleum industries were also aware, or should have been aware, of the environmental problems caused by their products. Despite this, the plastics industry fought regulation and sustainable solutions, even as evidence of the plastic crisis continued to grow.
The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a heightened concern about waste, with plastic singled out due to its disposable nature and everlasting presence in the environment. Plastic debris in the oceans and the growing problem of plastic waste led to plastic becoming a target for activists. The ultimate symbol of this problem is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a swirl of plastic waste the size of Texas floating in the Pacific Ocean.
Another blow to plastic's reputation during this time was the growing concern about the potential threat that additives in plastics posed to human health. These additives, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates, are added to plastics during the manufacturing process to enhance their properties, but they are suspected of leaching into food, water, and the human body. In very high doses, these chemicals can disrupt the endocrine (hormonal) system, and researchers are particularly worried about the effects on children and future generations.
The plastics industry responded to the growing concerns in the 1980s by encouraging municipalities to collect and process recyclable materials as part of their waste-management systems. However, recycling is not a perfect solution, and most plastics still end up in landfills or polluting the environment.
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Plastic's cultural impact and widespread use
Plastic is a word that originally meant "pliable and easily shaped". It has since become a name for a category of materials called polymers. The word polymer means "of many parts", and polymers are made of long chains of molecules. Polymers occur naturally, for example, cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, is a common natural polymer.
Humans have been able to create synthetic polymers since the mid-19th century, with the first synthetic polymer invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt. However, it wasn't until the 1950s that plastic production surged, with the advent of polycarbonate and HDPE. Plastic's popularity skyrocketed in the 1970s, with manufacturers replacing traditional paper and glass staples with lighter, more durable, and affordable plastic alternatives.
The success and dominance of plastics since the early 20th century have had major benefits for mankind, ranging from medical devices to lightweight construction materials. Plastic's adaptability, combined with a wide range of other properties such as low weight, durability, flexibility, chemical resistance, low toxicity, and low-cost production, has led to its widespread use around the world.
However, plastic is also the basis of widespread environmental concerns due to its slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Plastic debris in the oceans was first observed in the 1960s, and as awareness about environmental issues spread, the persistence of plastic waste began to trouble observers. Plastic also gradually became a word used to describe something that was cheap, flimsy, or fake.
Today, plastic waste is one of the major environmental problems globally, with adverse impacts on human well-being. While recycling has been advocated since the early 1970s, it wasn't until the late 1980s that it began to impact the management of plastic waste due to economic and technical challenges. Even today, the vast majority of plastic ends up in landfills, incinerators, or the environment, with less than 10% of all plastic discarded being recycled.
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Frequently asked questions
Plastic has been popular since the early 20th century, with the 20th and 21st centuries even being dubbed the "Plastics Age".
The first man-made plastic was Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1862. It was an organic material derived from cellulose that could be moulded when heated and retained its shape when cooled.
The first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1909. It was durable, heat-resistant, and ideally suited for mechanical mass production.
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