Ethan Clarke
The concept of neural plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity or brain plasticity, has evolved over the years, with contributions from several scientists. The term 'plasticity' was first used in 1890 by William James, who described it as a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once. However, the first person to use the term 'neural plasticity' appears to have been the Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a pioneering neuroscientist, used the term 'neuronal plasticity' to describe non-pathological changes in the adult brain. In the 1920s, Karl Lashley provided evidence of neural plasticity through experiments on rhesus monkeys, and in 1943, McCulloch and Pitts proposed the concept of an artificial neuron with a learning rule. The idea of neuroplasticity was further developed by scientists such as Donald Hebb, who studied the mechanisms of learning and memory, and Michael Merzenich, who demonstrated the brain's ability to normalize its structure in response to abnormal input. Today, neuroplasticity is recognized as the brain's ability to change and adapt through growth and reorganization of neural connections.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First person to use the term neuronal plasticity | Santiago Ramón y Cajal |
| First person to use the term neural plasticity | Jerzy Konorski |
| First person to apply the term plasticity to behavior | William James |
| First person to link plasticity with habit formation | William James |
| First to conduct experiments providing evidence for neuroplasticity | Michele Vincenzo Malacarne |
| First to conduct experiments demonstrating changes in neuronal pathways | Karl Lashley |
| First to propose the artificial neuron | McCulloch and Pitts |
| First to extensively discuss artificial neuron | Donald Olding Hebb |
| First to conclude that the "central" cortical mass has the capacity to increase neural excitability and reorganize activity by means of plasticity | Justo Gonzalo |
| First to receive the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience for the discovery of mechanisms that allow experience and neural activity to remodel brain function | Michael Merzenich |
| First to translate the concept of plasticity into a framework for clinical psychiatry | Adolf Meyer |
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What You'll Learn
Early pioneers: Santiago Ramón y Cajal, William James, and Adolf Meyer
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a Spanish neuroscientist and pathologist, is known for his pioneering work in the field of neural plasticity. Cajal's neuronal theory, often referred to as the Neuron Doctrine, challenged the prevailing reticular theory, which proposed a static view of the nervous system. Cajal's theory, on the other hand, maintained that neurons are dynamic and that the nervous system is flexible. He believed in the plastic and vital properties of neurons and their contribution to brain functions such as memory and learning. Cajal was the first to use the term "neuronal plasticity" to describe non-pathological changes in the structure of adult brains, including degeneration and regeneration, which went against the contemporary understanding of the brain as a non-renewable organ.
William James, a psychologist and philosopher, introduced the concept of plasticity in his 1891 textbook, "The Principles of Psychology." James linked plasticity with habit formation, suggesting that the phenomena of habit are due to the plasticity of the organic materials that make up living beings. He described plasticity as "a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once." James's ideas helped lay the groundwork for the concept of neural plasticity by challenging the notion that the brain and its functions are fixed throughout adulthood.
Adolf Meyer, a psychiatrist, built upon the work of James and others to champion the idea of neuroplasticity in the early 20th century. In 1902, Meyer referred to the nervous system as "the apparatus of biological plasticity," emphasizing the interfunctionality of neurons and mentation. He suggested that patients' experiences, both normal and pathological, could lead to changes in their brains, impacting clinical outcomes. Meyer's ideas were met with criticism and scorn, and they did not dominate the field of psychiatry in the following decades. However, his contributions created a conceptual space that allowed for the later development and reimagination of neuroplasticity.
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Neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting
The concept of neural plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity, brain plasticity, or neuronal plasticity, refers to the brain's ability to reorganise and rewire its neural connections. This process involves adaptive structural and functional changes, enabling the brain to adapt and function differently from its prior state. The term "plasticity" was first used in the context of behaviour by William James in 1890, while the term "neural plasticity" was likely first used by Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski. However, it was Santiago Ramón y Cajal who used the specific term "neuronal plasticity" to describe non-pathological changes in the structure of adult brains. Cajal's work laid the foundation for our understanding of neural plasticity, challenging the notion that the brain was a non-renewable organ.
Now, neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting are crucial aspects of neuroplasticity. Neuronal regeneration refers to the ability of neurons to recover and regenerate after injuries or trauma to the central nervous system (CNS) or peripheral nervous system (PNS). While the CNS has limited repair capabilities, neurons can exhibit an initial growth response after injury, upregulating specific genes and proteins. This response is followed by regenerative sprouting, where new axonal sprouts emerge from the damaged axon, attempting to reconnect with the target and restore synapse function.
Collateral sprouting is a process where undamaged neurons extend sprouts along their axons to form functional synapses with denervated targets. This occurs in response to an injury-induced environment, particularly in the PNS. The active degeneration program in the PNS creates a growth-permissive environment, free of inhibitory proteins and rich in neurotrophic factors, facilitating collateral sprouting. This process has been observed in various experimental models, with new collaterals sprouting from the rubrospinal tract into the spinal cord, for example.
The understanding of neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting has significant therapeutic implications, especially for nervous system disorders. By enhancing these processes, it may be possible to slow symptom progression and improve functional outcomes in conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and other neurological diseases. Furthermore, techniques like compartmentalized microfluidic chambers offer promising tools to study distal axons and develop drugs that promote neuronal regeneration and sprouting, potentially revolutionising the treatment of neurological disorders.
In conclusion, neuronal regeneration and collateral sprouting are essential mechanisms within the broader concept of neural plasticity. These processes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the brain's neural networks and their capacity for adaptation and repair. By studying and harnessing these mechanisms, we gain valuable insights into brain function and develop potential treatments for a range of neurological conditions.
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Functional reorganisation
The concept of neural plasticity, or neuroplasticity, is often attributed to pioneering neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who, in the early 1900s, used the term "neuronal plasticity" to describe non-pathological changes in the structure of adult brains. Cajal's neuron doctrine described the neuron as the fundamental unit of the nervous system, forming a foundation for the development of the concept of neural plasticity. However, it was Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski who first used the term "neural plasticity".
The term "plasticity" itself was first applied to behaviour by psychologist and philosopher William James in his 1890 book, "The Principles of Psychology". James described plasticity as "a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once". He linked plasticity with habit formation, stating that "the phenomena of habit in living beings are due to the plasticity of the organic materials of which their bodies are composed".
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganise and rewire its neural connections, enabling it to adapt and function differently from its prior state. This process of functional reorganisation involves adaptive structural and functional changes to the brain. It is the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganising its structure, functions, or connections.
One example of functional reorganisation is cortical remapping, where the brain remaps its neural connections to adapt to new circumstances. This can be observed in cases of brain injury or stroke, where the brain reorganises its functions to restore lost capabilities. For instance, after a stroke that affects movement on one side of the body, the brain may remap certain functions to the unaffected side, allowing for some recovery of movement.
Another example is vicariation, which is the concept that one area of the brain can take over the functions of another area. This can be seen in cases of brain damage, where the undamaged areas of the brain compensate for the lost functions, allowing for continued cognitive or physical capabilities.
Rehabilitation techniques, such as locomotion training and neurostimulation, can also stimulate advantageous neuroplastic changes, promoting functional improvement and aiding in brain recovery.
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Synaptic plasticity
The concept of synaptic plasticity was first proposed in 1949 by Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb, who suggested that synapses could change depending on how active or inactive they were. This idea has since been supported by numerous experiments and studies. For example, in 1973, Terje Lømo and Tim Bliss first described the now widely studied phenomenon of long-term potentiation (LTP) in a publication in the Journal of Physiology. They found that repetitive stimulation of presynaptic fibres resulted in high responses from granule cells of postsynaptic neurons, leading to long-term potentiation.
Overall, synaptic plasticity is a crucial aspect of neuroplasticity, allowing the brain to adapt and change in response to new information and experiences. By modifying the strength of synaptic connections, the brain can incorporate new memories and adapt its functioning.
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Modern research and applications
Neuroplasticity, or the brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections, is central to modern neuroscience. It is now known that brain plasticity continues throughout the lifespan, supporting learning, memory, and recovery from injury or disease. This adaptability highlights the dynamic and ever-evolving nature of the brain, even into adulthood.
Recent research has focused on understanding the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity and their therapeutic applications. For example, strategies to harness neuroplasticity range from pharmacological agents and lifestyle interventions to technologies like brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and targeted neuromodulation. Functional neuroimaging studies have shown activation differences in the brains of physically fit individuals compared to their less-fit peers, with profound neural and behavioural remodelling arising from environmental enrichment.
The concept of neuroplasticity has also been applied to the understanding of negative life events and their impact on brain development. For instance, there is increasing evidence that exposure to overwhelming stress may negatively affect brain development, with long-term alterations in brain development documented in children who experienced extremely neglectful early care.
Additionally, early evidence suggests that it may be possible to leverage neural plasticity to promote healthy development and remediate the effects of early stress through intervention efforts. For example, studies have documented neuroanatomical changes in rodents exposed to enriched environments following early stress, including increased brain weight and size, improved dendritic branching and length, and changes in synaptic size and number.
Ethical and societal implications of deploying novel neuroplasticity-based interventions are also being explored, including issues of equitable access, data privacy, and the blurred line between treatment and enhancement.
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Frequently asked questions
The term 'plasticity' was first applied to behaviour in 1890 by psychologist and philosopher William James in his book 'The Principles of Psychology'. However, the first person to use the term 'neural plasticity' appears to have been Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski.
In 1902, Adolf Meyer called the nervous system the “apparatus of biological plasticity” and placed the concept of neuroplasticity at the centre of his theory of psychobiology. Meyer's ideas and influence created conceptual space for others to imagine and develop the concept of neuroplasticity. In the 1920s, Karl Lashley conducted experiments on rhesus monkeys that demonstrated changes in neuronal pathways, providing evidence of plasticity.
In 1973, repetitive stimulation of presynaptic fibres in the rabbit hippocampus was found to result in high responses of granule cells of postsynaptic neurons by Bliss and Lomo. This phenomenon was termed 'long-term potentiation'. In 1948, Polish neurophysiologist Konorski postulated that morphological changes in neural connections could be the substrate of learning. More recently, Dr. Michael Merzenich's experiments on monkeys in the 1980s inadvertently led to the discovery of neuroplasticity.
