Chloe Zhang
The development of plastics began with natural materials that exhibited plastic properties. The quest for synthetic alternatives to these materials was driven by the desire to find technical materials that offered advantages not always found in natural substances. The first manufactured plastic, Parkesine, was created in 1862 by Alexander Parkes and exhibited both rigid and flexible properties. However, it was John Wesley Hyatt's process for creating plastic from cellulose and camphor in 1869 that truly revolutionized the industry. This discovery allowed humans to create new materials, unconstrained by the limits of nature, and led to the development of a wide range of synthetic plastics. While plastics have enabled numerous technological advancements, their production and consumption have also raised concerns about environmental sustainability and potential threats to human health.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First manufactured plastic | Parkesine, patented in 1862 by Alexander Parkes |
| First synthetic polymer | Invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt |
| First fully synthetic plastic | Bakelite, invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland |
| Reason for invention of plastic | To find a substitute for ivory, tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and other natural materials |
| Plastic properties | Flexible, durable, transparent, water-resistant, heat-resistant, and amenable to shaping |
| Plastic applications | Computers, cell phones, medical advances, clothing, packaging, consumer goods, film, sunglasses, etc. |
| Plastic problems | Environmental concerns, human health risks, pollution, waste, microplastics |
| Plastic solutions | Bioplastics, biodegradable plastics, improved recycling, conversion to fossil fuels |
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What You'll Learn
To reduce the slaughter of elephants for ivory
The development of plastics was driven by a range of factors, including the need to reduce the slaughter of elephants for their ivory.
The story of plastic's invention is intricately linked to the effort to prevent an environmental disaster caused by the ivory trade. In the 19th century, the world faced a crisis as the demand for ivory, driven by the popularity of billiards, led to the slaughter of thousands of elephants. The game of pool, a type of billiards, required a set of 16 balls, all made of solid ivory in quality sets. Between three and five balls could be crafted from a single elephant tusk, which meant that at least two elephants had to be killed to create one set of balls. This, combined with the many other uses of ivory, from clothing buttons and piano keys to dominoes and ornamental items, led to an unsustainable situation.
The demand for ivory was endangering elephants, and the price of ivory was increasing due to its scarcity. In the 1860s, the New York Times noted that elephants were at risk of becoming extinct due to the overwhelming demand for ivory. In response to this crisis, companies like Phelan and Collender, the largest maker of billiard balls in the United States, offered substantial rewards, such as $10,000, to anyone who could invent a synthetic substitute for ivory.
John Wesley Hyatt took up this challenge and, in 1869, invented the first synthetic polymer, later known as celluloid. Hyatt treated cellulose derived from cotton fiber with camphor, creating a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitate materials like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory. This invention was a game-changer, as it freed manufacturers from the limitations of elephant reproduction rates and provided a versatile and heat-resistant material.
The development of plastics like celluloid and Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907, played a crucial role in reducing the demand for ivory and helped protect elephants from the threat of extinction due to the ivory trade. These early plastics were instrumental in demonstrating the potential of synthetic materials and paved the way for the plastics industry's growth in the 20th century.
While the invention of plastics had a positive impact on reducing ivory usage, it also led to new environmental challenges, as plastic production and consumption surged, causing concerns about ocean pollution and the impact of plastic waste on the natural world.
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To find a substitute for natural rubber
The development of plastics was driven by the need to find substitutes for natural materials such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and natural rubber. Natural rubber, derived from the bark of the rubber tree, was sticky and mouldable but not suitable for storage. In the 18th century, Charles Goodyear accidentally discovered rubber by adding sulphur to hot crude rubber, making it resilient and elastic.
The search for a substitute for natural rubber gained momentum in the 19th century, with researchers like Alexander Parkes playing a pivotal role. Parkes patented Parkesine in 1862, the first manufactured plastic derived from plant cellulose. While Parkesine was rigid, flexible, water-resistant, and amenable to shaping, it lacked commercial success. John Wesley Hyatt, inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for an ivory substitute, built upon Parkes' invention. By treating cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, Hyatt created celluloid, a plastic that could imitate natural substances. This discovery revolutionised manufacturing by freeing it from the limitations of natural resources.
The emergence of new plastics continued in the 20th century, spurred by the need to replace scarce, costly, or unattainable natural materials, especially during the world wars. Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite in 1907, the first fully synthetic plastic containing no molecules found in nature. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and suitable for mass production, making it a versatile material with endless possibilities.
The expansion of the plastics industry during World War II further accelerated the development of synthetic alternatives. Nylon, invented by Wallace Carothers in 1935, was used for parachutes, ropes, body armour, and helmet liners. Plexiglas provided an alternative to glass for aircraft windows. The adaptability of plastics was highlighted during the war, and production surged by 300% in the United States.
The history of plastics and their development as substitutes for natural rubber demonstrate humanity's ongoing search for technical materials with advantages beyond what natural materials offer.
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To create materials with desirable properties not found in nature
The word "plastic" comes from the Latin "plasticus" and the Greek "plastikos", both of which mean "capable of moulding". Plastics are synthetic or semisynthetic materials composed primarily of polymers, which are made of long chains of molecules.
Scientists developed plastics to create materials with desirable properties not found in nature. The development of synthetic plastics was a response to the growing demand for durable, versatile, and cost-effective materials. The Industrial Revolution significantly increased the production of consumer goods, but the availability of natural materials did not keep up. Manufacturers needed synthetic materials to meet demand.
In 1863, a New York billiards supplier offered $10,000 in gold to anyone who could create an alternative to ivory. This prompted businessman John Wesley Hyatt to experiment with various combinations of solvents. Building on the work of chemist Alexander Parkes, who created the first manufactured plastic, "Parkesine", out of cellulose nitrate, Hyatt invented "celluloid", the first semi-synthetic plastic.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented "Bakelite", the first fully synthetic plastic, in his pursuit of a less expensive and readily available substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator. Baekeland combined formaldehyde with phenol and applied heat to create a material that was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mechanical mass production.
The development of plastics has allowed for the creation of materials with desirable properties not found in nature, such as high strength, low weight, durability, flexibility, chemical resistance, low toxicity, and low-cost production. These materials have become indispensable in daily life, enabling the development of computers, cell phones, and lifesaving advances in modern medicine.
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To develop a cheap and colourful material
The development of plastics started with natural materials that exhibited plastic properties. For centuries, people used materials like rubber, amber, horn, and tortoise shell, which they heated and moulded to create a range of objects. These early plastics were derived from non-fossil raw materials like oil and required minimal processing.
However, the significant growth in plastic usage occurred in the late 19th century with the development of synthetic plastics. One of the earliest examples of synthetic plastics was invented by Alexander Parkes, who named his invention Parkesine in 1855 or 1862. Parkesine was a cheap and colourful substitute for ivory or tortoiseshell, derived from cellulose nitrate. It could be altered to be rigid, soft, or rubber-like, and it could be moulded into various shapes. This discovery was revolutionary as it freed human manufacturing from the limitations of nature and helped conserve natural resources.
John Wesley Hyatt built on the work of Parkes, creating celluloid in 1869. Hyatt was inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for a substitute for ivory, which was in high demand for billiard balls. Hyatt's celluloid could imitate ivory and other natural substances, and it could be crafted into various shapes. This invention further contributed to the development of cheap and colourful plastic materials.
In the 20th century, the emergence of new types of plastics accelerated, particularly during the world wars, when natural materials became scarce and costly. The creation of Bakelite by Leo Baekeland in 1907 marked a significant shift. Bakelite was the first fully synthetic plastic, containing no molecules found in nature. It was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mechanical mass production.
The development of plastics allowed for the creation of affordable consumer goods, such as combs, sunglasses, and clothing, which previously may have been out of reach for many people. However, it also contributed to a single-use culture, with plastic replacing more expensive and environmentally friendly materials like paper, glass, and metal in throwaway items. While plastic has had a significant impact on modern life, there are growing concerns about its potential threat to human health and the environment, particularly due to the chemicals used in its manufacturing and its persistence in the environment.
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To replace expensive paper, glass and metal
The development of plastics began with natural materials that exhibited plastic properties. For centuries, people used materials like rubber, amber, horn, and tortoise shell, which they heated and moulded to create a range of objects. These early plastics were derived from non-fossil raw materials like oil and required minimal processing.
The creation of synthetic plastics in the late 19th century marked a significant growth period for plastics. The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who was inspired by a New York firm's offer of $10,000 for a substitute for ivory. The growing popularity of billiards had led to the slaughter of wild elephants for their ivory. Hyatt treated cellulose derived from cotton fibre with camphor, creating a plastic that could be crafted into various shapes and imitations of natural substances. This discovery was revolutionary, freeing human manufacturing from the limits of nature.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland invented Bakelite, the first fully synthetic plastic, in search of a synthetic substitute for shellac, a natural electrical insulator. Bakelite was durable, heat-resistant, and well-suited for mechanical mass production. It could be shaped or moulded into almost anything, providing endless possibilities.
The development of plastics continued, with new types of plastics emerging and replacing natural materials that became scarce or costly, especially during the world wars. Plastic replaced paper, glass, and metal in throwaway items like consumer packaging, shopping bags, and food containers. It made items more affordable and accessible to the masses, democratising consumer goods and culture.
Today, plastics are critical to modern life, enabling advancements in computers, cell phones, and modern medicine. However, the plastic industry also poses environmental and health concerns due to the mass production and disposal of single-use plastics.
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Frequently asked questions
Scientists developed plastic to create materials that offered advantages not found in natural materials. Plastic could be crafted into a variety of shapes and made to imitate natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes and patented in 1862, is considered the first manufactured plastic. It was a semi-synthetic material derived from cellulose nitrate.
Bakelite, invented by Leo Baekeland in 1907, was the first fully synthetic plastic, meaning it contained no molecules found in nature.
